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NEW 
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Copyrig]itl^"_ 



COFXRIGHT DEFOSm 




Monarchical France. 



3. First French Republic. 



State Flag, adopted by the Louisiana Convention 
which passed the Ordinance of Secession. 



The present Flag of the United States. 



Spain. 

Flag of the United States in 1803, when Louisiana 
was ceded to the United States by France, Napoleon 
Bonaparte, First Consul. 

In 1812, when Louisiana was admitted into the 
Union. 

In 1815, when the Battle of New Orleans was 
fought. 

Confederate Flag, Act of Confederate Congress, 1863. 

The present State Flag, adopted by the General As- 
sembly of Louisiana, Act 39 of 1912. 



THE NEW ORLEANS 

BOOK 



BY 

EMMA C. RICHEY 
EVELINA P. KEAN 



New Orleans 
The L. Graham Co . Ltd , Printers 
430-432 common street 
19 15 



rs79 



COPYRIGHT 



EMMA C, RICHEY 
EVELINA P. KEAN 

NEW ORLEANS. LOUISIANA 



(^.. 



©CI,A410684 



SEP 2? 1915 



INTKODLCTIOX. 



F tlie opportunities within lier i-eacli arc intelligently 
realized, New Orleans will become one of the great 
centers of the world. Love of country is a feeling in- 
herent in every normal l)oy and girl. Community ])atriot- 
ism— an (mtgrowlh of the modern conditions of life — takes 
the form of great pride in one's native city, or in the city one has 
adopted as one's home, and inevitably leads to good results. 

We want to inculcate in the cliildren of our city a keen, vivid 
interest in its past history, in its ))resent, and in its future. Economy 
in government, good order, cleanliness, and honesty must be the out- 
come of the education of the children, if our city is to take and main- 
tain its place in civilization. That the growth of a city is measured 
by the civic interest of its ])eople is a recognized fact. New con- 
ditions demand that all children should be taught tliey are the coming 
responsible heads of the community. 

There was a time when the national government was controlled 
in-incipally by men from small towns or farms. Today, our Presidents 
are city men who are calling into their cabinets advisors from our 
great municipalities, thus proving, "He who makes the city makes 
the world," 



PREFACE. 




T is only nieot that the public should know how this study 
of New Orleans was made possible. The accomplishment 
of the task was at first doubtful; but the passing weeks 
revealed the lively disposition of the gentlemen of New 
Orleans to assist in making New Orleans known to the 
children of the Southern metropolis. To the courtesy, 
civic interest, and cooperation of those gentlemen whom 
it was our pleasure to interview and otherwise commimicate with, is 
due the existence of this book. 

Our kind readers will no doubt sometimes be surprised at the 
relative size of some of the illustrations. We crave their indulgence. 
Such discrepancies are the result of the very limited cost of the book, 
which preventetl all tlie illustrations being made to order, and caused 
dependence upon the generosity of friends of the work, for the 
majority of the illustrations. 

To the following gentlemen and organizations, we desire to ex- 
tend special thanks for information, advice, criticism, or illustrations: 
Robert Glenk, T. P. Thompson, Gaspar Cusach, Norman Walker, 
W. 0. Hart, J. Zach. Spearing, Judge I. D. Moore, Prof. Ellsworth 
Woodward, S. Locke Breaux, L. E. Bentley, E. E. Lafaye, Dr. Jos. 
iiolt. Dr. G. F. Patton, Dr. I. M. Cline, Dr. W. H. Robin, Stanley C. 
Arthur, Leonard Nicholson, George G. Earle, Sidney Lewis, Chris 
Reuter, Tiley ^^icChesney, the Louisiana State Museum, Southern 
Pacific Railroad, Association of Commerce, Board of Trade, and the 
officials of the city. 

We wish to express our appreciation of the unfailing courtesy and 
cooperation of the gentlemen of the New Orleans Board of Public School 
Directors and the Superintendents of the New Orleans Public Schools. 
it is our sincere wish that "The New Orleans Book" will attain the 
end they desire, namely, the dissemination of knowledge of New Or- 
leans, fostering of love of our uuique city, and development of a true 
civic spirit, active in times of peace, in reform, and improvement along 
lines conservative of the city's individuality and, yet, abreast witli real 
progress, — and steadfast, true, and self-sacrificing in times of trouble 
and trial which, in the i)rogression of the world, must necessarily come 
upon New Orleans in the future as in the past; but, as in the past, to 
be heroically borne and overcome, thus giving rise to a still nobler 
period. 

THE AUTHORS. 
New Orleans, La., 

September, 1915. 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter. Page. 

T. Geographical Conditions 1 

IT. History of New Orleans 7 

III. Drainage — Sewerage — Filtici; I'i.ant 4.'') 

IV. Health Conditions J 9 

V. Systems of Communication .")9 

VI. Trade 04 

VII. Industries 7fi 

VIII. Manufactures SS 

IX. Foodstuffs !)1 

X. Professions — Tr.ides 97 

XI. Charitable Institutions 10;l 

XII. Education 107 

XIII. Literature of New Orleans IS? 

XIV. People — Customs 128 

XV. City Government 1:15 

XVI. City Beautiful 1 l;i 

StippLEMENT. Government of Louisiana T 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



The Flags Frontispiece 



Page. 

Cross Section Showing Land-Slope from the 

EivER TO THE Lake 2 

Scene in Third District Showing Levee Con- 
struction; Material Being Brought on 

Cars 3 

Scene in Third District Siiowrxo Levee Con- 
struction; Mud Pumped Tiiiioufui Elevated 

Sluices 3 

Map of Louisiana 7 

La Salle 8 

Louis XIV 8 

Pierre Le Motne d'Ibeuville 9 

Jean Baptiste Le Moyne dic BikwillI': 10 

John Law 11 

Due d'Orleans 11 

Map or 1728 11 

Marquis de Vaudreuil 13 

I^Iap op New Orleans, 17(i3 13 

Charles III. of Spain 14 

Louis XV. 14 

Don Antonio de Ulloa 14 

Don Alexandro O'Keilly 1.5 

Bernado Galvez 1.5 

Plan of the Great Conflagration* 16 

B.VRON de Carondelet IG 

Don Andres Almonaster Y Eoxas 16 

Cabildo as It Appears Today 17 

View of the Interior of the Cabildo 17 

View of the Corridor of the Cabildo 17 

Etienne de Bore 18 

A Flatboat 18 

Map of New Orleans 19 

Napoleon Bonaparte 31 

Laussat 33 

Thomas Jefferson 33 

Copt of Jefferson's Proclamation for a Special 
Session of Congress to Eatify the Pur- 
chase of Louisiana from France 23 

Cession of Louisiana to the United St.vtes. ... 33 

A View of New Orleans from the Plantation . 23 

Gov. W. C. C. Claiborne 34 

Jean and Pierre Lafitte and Dominique You . . 35 

Andrew Jackson 26 

A General Map of the Seat of War in Lou- 
isiana AND West Florida .. .. .. .. ........... . .. . .. 37 



Page. 

General Jacques Villere 37 

Map Showing the Landing of the Buitlsh 

Army. 38 

JIap of New Orleans, 1815 29 

View, as It Appears Today, of the Bank of 
Louislana Building, Corner of Eoyal and 

CoNTi Streets, Erected in 1836 30 

The Tallulah, Clipper Eng.\ged in Slave 

Trade to New Orleans 31 

United States Mint 32 

Jacksox Squ.vre .A.S It Appeared in 1838 33 

Street Eailroad C.\r in 1838 33 

^L\r of Louisiana, 1849 34 

Canal Street, Royal to Bourbon, 1816 34 

Orleans Alley 35 

Typical Homes in the A'ieux Cariie, Erected 
During the First Half of the Nineteenth 

Centt'hy 35 

Coiarrv-Md) i\ \'ii:i;x Carre 36 

First St. Charles Hotel 36 

Second St. Louis Hotel 36 

Old St. Charles Theatre 37 

James H. Caldwell 37 

French Opera House, Erected in 18.59 37 

^fonument in memory of members of wliite 
Le.'VGue, Who Fell in Co.nflict on Septem- 
ber 14, 1874 39 

Harbor of New Orleans, 1873 39 

Central Building, Cotton Centennial Ex- 
position. ... 40 

Old Style Steamboat Landing 41 

Ships at the Wharves 43 

Maison Blanche Building 43 

Jackson Square as It Is ToD.iY 43 

Panorama View of Commercial Section, 

Viewed from Top of City Hall 14 

Main W.\terworks Pumping Station and Drain- 

.\GE Power House No. 3 46 

View Showing Napoleon Avenue Drainage 

Canal in Course of Construction 47 

French M.arket Before Eenovation 51 

French Market After Renovation 55 

United States Post Office 59 

Mule Traction . . ..... . . . .... 6.31 



ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued. 



Latest Model of Electric Car in Use in New 

Orleans 63 

Map of New Orleans Harbor^ Louisiana Avenue 

TO Alvar Street 65 

Drydocks and United States Government 

Landings 66 

Banana Conveyors 67 

Map Showing Drainage System of Mississippi 

EiVER 69 

Ferrying Cars Across the Eiver 71 

Import Coffee 73 

Custom House 74- 

Panoramic View of the Harbor 75 

New Orleans Cotton Eschange 76 

Cotton Warehouses and Terminal 77 

Corn Crop on Reclaimed Land 78 

Cane Crop on Eeclaimed Land 79 

Ciialmette Sugar Refinery 80 

Irrigation Pumping Plant in West Louisiana. . 81 
Preparation of Soil for Rice Planting in AVest 

Louisiana. ... 81 

Cypress Swamp 83 

Tons of Sulphur Ready for Shipment 85 

Mining Salt Underground 86 

Jennings Oil Field 87 

Otis Mahogany Plant 89 



Page. 
Products of a Truck Farm on Reclaimed Land 91 

Orange Grove 93 

Loading Oysters on a Transport 94 

New Orleans Court Building 98 

Charity Hospital 103 

.Julian Poydras 104 

Margaret's Monument 105 

Three Homes of the Ursulines 107' 

Warren Easton High School 112 

McDonogh No. 14 113 

Gibson Hall, Tulane Campus 115 

Newcomb College 116 

Loyola University 117 

New Orleans Public Library 130 

Charles Gayarre 133 

Alcee Portier 135 

Carnival Pageant in Canal Street 130 

McDonogh Monument in Lafayettk Square. . . 133 

Si'. Roch's Chapel 133 

City Hall 136 

Delgado Art Museum 149 

Oaks in Audubon Park 150 

Creosoted Wood Block Pavement 152 

Seal of the State of Louisiana XI. 

Map of New Orleans Insert 



ERRATA. 



Chapter I, p. 3. Read: "Courtesy N. 0. Levee Board." 

Chapter II, p. 23. Under first picture read: Courtesy of La. State 
Museum. ' ' 

24. Under picture, read: "Courtesy of La. State 
Museum. ' ' 



26. Second column, line 20, read: "Bayou Bienvenu." 

Chapter V, p. 59. Read: "Systems of Communication." 

Chapter XII, p. 109. Second column, first line, read: "Church." 

120. Read: "New Orleans Public Library." 



CHAPTER I. 



Geographical Conditions. 



SECTION 1. LOCATION OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Location. Bienville selected a few knolls 
rising out of a tree-covered swamp as the site 
for his capital, because he realized that one day 
his little settlement would grow into a great and 
prosperous city- through the advantages offered 
Ity the Mississippi and the agricultural possibil- 
ities of the country. Almost a hundred years 
later, Jefferson secured Louisiana for the United 
States. His principal object was the possession 
of New Orleans, which he predicted would be- 
come the commercial metropolis of the South. 

New Orleans, Louisiana, is in the south cen- 
tral i)art of the United States, 29 degrees, 56 
minutes, 59 seconds North Latitude, 90 de- 
grees, 41 minutes, 94 seconds West Longitude. 
Although one hundred ten miles from the Gulf of 



Mexico, New Orleans is a seaport, for it is situ- 
ated on the Mississippi Eiver, which can float at 
this point the largest sea-going vessels. 

AdvaJita,ges of Location. The Mississippi 
River, with its tributaries, offers seventeen thou- 
sand six hundred fifty miles of navigable water- 
way, extending through twenty-two states. Be- 
cause of its location. New Orleans should be the 
center of trade between the Mississippi Valley 
and Central and South American countries. The 
Panama Canal brings a large portion of the ori- 
ental commerce through this port. The pros- 
perity of a city depends not only uj^on its com- 
niei-cial facilities, but also upon the resources of 
tile adjacent region. In this respect, New Or- 
leans, the gateway of the fertile Mississippi 
Valley, is equalled by few cities. 



SECTION 2. EXTENT OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Extent. The corporate limits of New Orleans 
emln-ace the whole of Orleans Parish, an area of 
one hundred ninety-six square miles. New York 
is the only city in the United States that covers 
more territory. The boundary line of Orleans 
Parish is very irregular, but it may be given ap- 
proximately as Lake Pontchartraiu on the north 



and west, the Kigolets separating Orleans from 
St. Tammany Parish on the north. Lake Borgne 
on the east and south, St. Bernard Parish on the 
east and south, the Mississippi Eiver on the 
south, and Jefferson Parish on the west. Part 
of Orleans Parish extends over the river, em- 
bracing xVlgiers and the surrounding districts. 



SECTION 3. TOPOGRAPHY. 



Topography. The topograph}' of this region has 
undergone great changes. This has been proven 
by a study of the soil and by historic records. 
Even in the memory of the i^resent generation, 
there were swamps where now stand beautiful 
residences. These changes have been largely 
effected by the Mississippi, to which mighty 
agency New Orleans owes its very existence. 



Ages ago, an arm of the Gulf of Mexico reached 
to the Ohio River. In this bay the river deposited 
its sediment until not only the bay, but much of 
the Gulf, was filled. As the Mississippi River 
carries hundreds of millions of tons of silt into 
the Gulf everj^ year, this process of land building 
continues. Even after the land was raised above 
the sea-level, the river did not cease its great 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



work. Swollen by the floods and melting snows 
along its upper course, it would annually over- 
flow tliis region, leaving a deposit of alluvium. 



from the river front, where the land is highest, 
and a lesser slo^je hack from the lake shore. A 
slight elevation extends across the city along 




S?????^^^^^!??^7^3!!5?^357:5^3^5^3^?3^!^ 




Cross section showing land-slope from the River to the Lake. 



— Courtesy of J<'. 0. S. & W. Board. 



Thus, year by year, until the levees shut out 
the floods, New Orleans was built up. The high- 
est portions now have an elevation of fifteen 
feet; but, in some places, the city is slightly 
below Gulf level. There is a gi'adual slope back 



Metairie Ridge, City Park, and Gentilly Terrace. 
The section extending between Lakes Borgne 
and Pontchartrain as far as the Rigolets is al- 
most entirely swamp land. Small tracts of this 
have been reclaimed for market gardens. 



SECTION 4. SOIL FORMATION. 



Soil Formation. The causes of these slopes 
and ridges will be understood by studying the 
work of rivers in building ui? their flood plains. 
A swiftly flowing river can carry a large amount 
of detritiis, but when the current is cheeked it is 
forced to drop its burden. The greatest check to 
the current of a river overflowing its flood plains 
occurs as it leaves its channel; consequently, 
the heaviest and coarsest sediment is deposited 
there. ■ The river banks are thus built higher 
by each flood and a system of natural levees is 
produced. The finer silt is carried farther be- 
fore being released. This causes a marked dif- 
ference in the formation and - composition of 
front and hack lands along a river. The forma- 
tion of the land along the bayous is similar to 
that along the river; it is high near the streams 
and slopes back into lowlands or swamps. This 
accounts for the ridges along Bavou St. John 



and Bayou Sauvage. The course of a former 
outlet of the Mississippi Eiver is marked by the 
ridge along Metairie and Gentilly Terrace. 

Present Work of the River. Levees restrain 
the flood waters; but tJie river has not ceased its 
work. The current grows sluggish along the 
inner curve of the river, and here a bank or 
"batture" is built up outside the levee. The 
current is correspondingly swift along an outer 
curve, whei'e it wears away the bank. This is 
occurring at Carrollton Bend and at Greenville 
Bend (between Westwego and Carrollton). The 
batture from Felicity street to below Canal 
street has increased so much that the levee has 
been moved to take in the newly formed land. 
Within the history of New Orleans, the site of 
the present Customhouse was on the river front 
and Tchoupitoulas street was the highroad along 
the bank. 



SECTION 5. INUNDATIONS. 



Causes of Inundations. New Orleans has 
suffered from overflows of the Mississippi and 
Lake Pontchartrain. Floods from Lake Pont- 
chartraiji. have resulted from two causes: (1) 



Backwater from crevasses along the river fill 
Lake Pontchartrain; this water, when prevented 
by prevailing southeast winds from reaching the 
Gulf, floods the region about the lake, (2) The 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



same result is produced when violent storms pile 
up the waters of the lake. 

The level of Lake Pontchartrain was raised 
five feet by the Bonnet Carre crevasse remaining 
oi^en from 1874 to 1882 ; it was raised six and a 
lialf feet by the storm of September, 1909. 

Crevasses. In the spring, the snow and ice 
in the upper Mississippi Valley begin to melt, 
thus increasing the volume of water in the river. 
The force of this swollen current is so great that 
the levees sometimes give way under the severe 
strain. Such a break is called a crevasse. 
These were of frequent occurrence in the 
early history of New Orleans, but diminished 
as- the levees were strengthened. New Or- 
leans was never destroyed by flood, but the daily 
a flairs of the city were seriousl}^ interrupted. 

Notable Crevasses. In 1799, there was a 
crevasse at Macarty's plantation, now Carroll- 
ton, and in 1813, another occurred higher up at 



Kenner's plantation. The levee in front of Ma- 
cart}^ 's plantation broke again in 1816; this time, 
the water was from three to five feet deep in the 
suburbs, and the citj^ itself was flooded as far as 
Chartres street. In 1831, a severe storm caused 
the lake to overflow to such an extent that the 
waters reached Dauphine street. This occurred 
again in 1837, '44, and '46. 

The crevasse of 1849 at Sauve's plantation, 
about seventeen miles above the city, was one 
of the most destructive. "Within twelve days, 
Rampart street was under water and the flood 
covered the rear of the city. Two thousand 
houses, like so many islands, were completely 
surrounded by water. People who could not 
abandon their homes were obliged to resort to 
boats as a means of transportation. When the 
waters had subsided it was found that public 
l)roperty, gutters, pavement, street-crossings, 
liridges, etc., had suffered considerable damage. 



SECTION 6. LEVEES. 



Along the River. Levees of great size and 
strength have lioen built along the ]\[ississippi's 
course through the State of Louisiana. Nowhere 
in the world, not even in Holland, where the 
people hold back the waters of the sea, are the 
levees as large as those built by the Parish of 
Orleans to check the encroachments of the 
"Father of Waters." 

Size and length. The base of these great 
levees is as thick through as a city block, and in 



])laces the crowii or top is fifty feet wide and five 
feet above the highest water ever recorded at 
New Orleans. The largest levees are along Car- 
rollton Bend, called Carrollton Beach Levee, and 
in front of the Tliii'd District. Tlic great size of 
these levees is easily realized because of the un- 
obstructed view. There are levees of almost tlie 
same height before the business section, but the 
slope is so gradual it is scarcely perceptibl'e.. 
The levee at Caiuil street commences at the 




Scene in Third District showing levee construction, 
mud pumped thrpugh elevated sluices. 

—Courtesy N. 0. S. & W. Board. 




§cene in Third District showing levee construction, 
material being brought on cars. 

—Courtesy N. 0. S. & W. Board, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



Louisville and Nashville depot and slopes up 
until it is two to three feet above liigii-water 
mark at the river front. The Orleans Levefe 
Board maintains twelve miles of levee on the 
left or east bank of the river and over thirteen 
miles on the right or west bank, besides the 
fifty-two miles of rear protection levees. 

BaJik Protection. The levees are protected 
from erosion, or wearing, by wooden revetments 
or by a coating of concrete. Willow mattresses, 
sunk below the sui'face of the water, prevent the 
caving of levees along banks where the current 
washes with greater force. The work of bank 
protection is relegated to the United States Gov- 
ernment. From 1907 up to date, the Govern- 
ment has expended over a million dollars in this 
character of work. 

Construction of Levees. The Orleans Levee 
Board is charged with the construction, repair, 
suiDervision, and maintenance of all levees in the 
Parish of Orleans. The method of construction 
depends largelj^ upon the facilities at hand for 
obtaining the necessary earth to build the levee. 
Frequently the dirt is brought on barges, or in 
cars, if there are railroad tracks near. Great 
cranes unload the barges or cars and place the 
dirt in the required position. The force of run- 
ning water is sometimes applied to levee con- 
struction. The material used to build the levee 
is shot through long elevated sluices by a con- 
tinuous stream, and the mud thus produced is 
deposited through troughs at regular distances 
along the line of construction. Low dams hold 



this slush within a certain area, where, after the 
water has drained oft", the dirt is shaped into a 
levee. "Where the use of machinery is not prac- 
ticable, the dirt has to be hauled by mules or 
wheeled in barrows; and the levees have to be 
built with wheel and drag scrapers. 

Protection Levees. Levees are maintained 
along the lake shore, the parish lines, the canal 
banks, and Bayou St. John, as well as along the 
river front. The purpose of protection levees is 
to prevent backwater from crevasses or lake 
floods from entering the city. These levees are 
not nearly so high as those along the river, but 
they aggregate about fifty-two miles in length. 

Swamp Reclamation. Since the construction 
of levees that afford effectual protection to the 
city, attention has been directed towards re- 
clamation of swamp lands. Cyjoress trees and 
tangled undergrowth once covered an extensive 
area of marsh where streets are now laid out and 
houses are being built. Most of the reclama- 
tion has been effected at the city's expense 
by means of the drainage canals, but the New 
Orleans Lake Shore Land Company has im- 
proved a large tract beyond Gentilly Terrace 
for real estate speculation. The entire area 
from People's avenue to the New Basin 
Canal and from the river to the lake is now 
drained. 

Other reclamation projects are uow being 
considered and, when completed, all of the 
swamp lands in the rear of the city will be re- 
claimed by drainage canals and levees. 



SECTION?. CLIMATE. 



Conditions that Affect Climate in New Or- 
leans. The climate of New Orleans is affected 
by (1) latitude, (2) nearness to large bodies of 
water, (3) direction of prevailing winds, (4) 
levelness of the surrounding country. 

Latitude. New Orleans is only about seven 
degrees north of the torrid zone, consequently 
the sun's rays are almost vertical during the 
summer months. The thirtieth parallel of lati- 
tude crosses Africa and Arabia through burning- 
deserts, but New Orleans, at the same distance 
from the equator, has mild and pleasing sum- 
mers. 

Nearness to Large Bodies of Water. Regions 



adjacent to large expanses of water are less sub- 
ject to extremes of temperature than inland sec- 
tions, because water neither heats nor cools as 
rapidly as land. The extensive water surface 
formed by the network of bayous and lakes 
which indent the coast of Louisiana materially 
affects the climate. Especially is this true in 
New Orleans, which is made almost an island 
by Lake Pontchartrain, Lake Borgne, and the 
Mississippi Biver. The warm Gulf stream lessens 
the severity of winter. 

Direction of Prevailing Winds. For almost 
six months of the year the city is swept by south- 
easterlv winds from the Gulf. These are satu- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



rated witli moisture, wliicli lessens the intensity 
of the sun's rays by day and prevents rapid 
radiation by nigiit. During the winter months, 
the prevailing winds are from the north and 
northeast, but, having to cross Lake Pontchar- 
train, they are tempered before reaching New 
Orleans. The atmosphere, though laden with 
moisture, is not heavy nor oppressive. Breezes 
from the Gulf impart a fresh and vigorous tone 
during the summer and ■ moderate the cold in 
winter. 

Levelness of the Surrounding Country. There 
are no heights of land in the vicinity of New Or- 
leans to obstruct the winds or prevent the dis- 
tribution of moisture. 

Temperature. The summers are long, but 
the maximum temperature never exceeds and 
seldom equals that of inland cities much farther 
north. The highest the thermometer has ever 
registered at New Orleans was 102° Fahrenheit 
on July 13, 1901, and again on June 22, 1915. 
Only on five other occasions was it as high as 
100° Fahrenheit. The mean temperature for 
July and August, the hottest months of the year, 
obtained from records extending over a period 
of forty-two years, is 82°. Excessive heat is 
rare and heat prostrations are few. On the other 
hand, the winters are exceedingl}^ mild. There 
is ice on an average of less than four times a 
year, and the ground seldom freezes. All but the 
most delicate plants can remain put of doors 
during the winter with only a covering of 
burlap or paper to protect them from frost. 
The lowest temperature ever recorded at New 



Orleans did not descend to zero, being seven 
degrees above zero on February 13, 1899. The 
season of greatest cold occurs during December 
and January. 

Rainfall and Moisture. There is no distinc- 
tive rainy season in New Orleans, as many out- 
siders suppose. The average rainfall is about 
equal for all the months of the year, increasing 
slightly during the summer. The inhabitants 
appreciate this provision of nature, for rainy 
days are few, and frequent showers serve to cool 
the atmosphere. Spring and autumn, having 
very moderate rainfall, are always pleasant 
seasons. The annual monthly rainfall averages 
four and five-tenths inches. 

Healthfulness. Few places have a more uni- 
formly delightful climate than New Orleans. 
Those who condemn it as disagreeable and un- 
healthful do so through ignorance of present 
conditions. Much of the sickness resulting from 
other causes has been charged to the damp, 
"tropical" climate of New Orleans. The re- 
clamation of nearby swamp lauds has reduced 
the high humidity which made it an undesirable 
place for persons suffering from some maladies. 
Residents of New Orleans have no need to seek 
mountain and seashore resorts in summer, for 
breezes from the gulf and lake keep their own 
city pleasant during the summer months, while 
strangers flock to the Southern metropolis to 
enjoy the winters, where trees are green and 
flowers bloom, where outdoor life is uninter- 
rupted and fires may be dispensed with many 
days in the season. 



SECTION 8. WEATHER BUREAU. 



Weather Bureau. Climate exerts so much 
influence over the lives, habits, and occupations 
of people that the United States Government 
has established the Weather Bureau under the 
Department of Agriculture. The work of this 
Bureau is to study the rise and fall of tempera- 
ture, the direction and velocity of the wind, the 
amount of rainfall, and the barometric pressure, 
in order to anticipate unusual weather con- 
ditions, and to give information and warning 
with regard to floods. 

New Orleans Station. There is a station in 
New Oi'leans fully equipped for making observ- 



ations and forecasts. The offices are located in 
the Post Office building. 

Observations of local weather conditions are 
taken twice daily at about two hundred observ- 
ing stations in the United States. Trained 
observers, using delicate instruments, determine 
weather changes with utmost accuracy. Com- 
plete telegraphic reports are immediately sent 
to Washington, District of Columbia, where ex- 
pert forecasters determine the weather con- 
ditions that may be expected to prevail during 
the next thirty-six to forty-eight hours. Reports 
are also sent to some of the larger stations. 



6 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



wlicro similar calculations are niade for tlieir 
respective A'ieinities. 

Distribution of Forecasts. Witliin two hours 
after the moruiug observations have been taken, 
the forecasts are telegraplied from the forecast 
stations to nearly two thousand distributing 
points. Countless individuals receive the daily 
weather news from these points by means of 
telegraph, telephone, or mail. The principal 
features of current weather conditions through- 
out the country are represented on a map. 

Value of Forecasts. The extent to which the 
Weather Bureau, in the collection and publica- 
tion of data and the issue of weather forecasts 
and warnings, affects the daily life of the people, 
is increasing yearly. Warnings of storms and 
hurricanes, issued for the benetit of marine in- 
terests, are the most important and valuable. 
These are displayed at more than three lumdred 
points along the coasts and along the shores of 
Ihe (rreat Lakes. So nearly perfect has service 
become that scarcely a storm of marked danger 
lo maritime interests lias occurred for years for 
which ample warnings have not been issued 
from twelve to twenty-four hours in advance. 
West Indian reports are especially valuable, as 
the approach of those destructive hurricanes 
which sweep the Gulf and Atlantic coasts from 
July to October can thereby be accurately de- 
termined. 

Change of Temperature Warnings. The 
warnings of those sudden temperature changes 
known as cold waves are probably next in im- 
portance. These warnings, issued from twenty- 



four to thirty-six hours in advance, are scattered 
throughout the threatened region by flags at 
Weather Bureau stations, by telegraph, tele- 
phone, and mail service; planters, florists, ship- 
pers and many others profit by this knowledge. 
Fruit, sugar, tobacco, cranberry, and market 
gardening interests are protected by forecasts 
of frost or freezing weather. Savings to growers 
in a limited district through the instrumentality 
of such warnings has been estimated at thou- 
sands of dollars for one cold spell. 

Flood Warnings. The commerce of our rivers 
is greatl}' aided and lives and property in regions 
subject to overflow are protected by the publica- 
tion of river stages and the issue of river and 
flood forecasts. These are liased on reports re- 
ceived from about five hundred special river and 
rainfall stations. The value of this service was 
strongly emphasized during a great flood in the 
Mississippi watershed, which was one of the 
greatest in its history, the stages in some jilaces 
1)eing the highest ever known. Yet, notwith- 
standing the enormous volumes of water, the 
forecasts and warnings were accuratels- verified 
as to location, stage, and date. 



TOPICS. Section 1. Lof-ation of New OHe.ins; Section 2. 
Extent of New Orleans; Section 3. Topography; Sec- 
tion 4. Soil Formation; Section 5. Inuiulatioiis; Sec- 
tion 6. Levees; Section 7. Climate; Section 8. Weather 
Bureau. 

REFERENCES: Geological Survey of Louisiana; Waring 
anil Cable, History and Present Conditions of New 
Orleans, 1880; Eeport of the Orleans Levee Board; 
Reports of the Weather Bureau. 



Chapter il. 

History of New Orleans. 

SECTION I. FRENCH DOMINATION. 



1. LOUISIANA BEFORE 1718. 

Early Explorers of Louisiana. In 1528, Pam- 
pliilo de Nai'vaez led an expedition from Cuba 
into Florida. Defeated by the Indians, he re- 
treated to the coast, only to find his ships gone. 
They built some rude crafts and embarked from 
about what is now Choctawliatchee Bay. After 
several days' sailing, they passed the mouth of 
a great river and drank of its water; but the 
mighty current dispersed the boats, and Nar- 
vaez was never heard of again. Three boats 
reached Texas, and, after six years' detention 
by the Indians, several of the survivors, led by 
Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer of the expedition, 
managed to reach a Spanish settlement in Mexico. 

Eleven years later, Hernando de Soto sailed 
from Cuba with a large force and landed on the 
coast of Tampa Ba^^, determined to conquer the 
territory explored by Narvaez. After wander- 
ing through what is now Georgia, Alabama, and 
Mississippi, having his army diminished by In- 
dian attacks and malaria, he at last, in the third 
year of the expedition, readied the Mississippi 
River at a point slightly 
south of Memphis. Here 
he crossed the river and 
wandered as far west as 
the Red River, but be- 
coming ill he returned 
to the banks of the Mis- 
sissippi, where he died. 
His followers, fearing 
attacks of the Indians 
should they hear of their 
leader's death, placed 
his body in the trunk of 
a tree and buried him in 
the great river. Unable 
to reach Mexico by land, 
they built seven brigan- 
tines and, led by Mos- 
coso, de Soto 's successor, 
one-half of his followers 
finally reached Tampico 
River in Mexico. 



Expeditions of Pere Marquette and La Salle. 

In 1673, having heard from the Indians, of a 
great river that flowed to the west, Pere Mar- 
quette, a Jesuit missionary, set out from Quebec 
accompanied by Joliet, a fur-trader, to explore 
and claim it for France. They went in their 
birch-bark canoes up the St. Lawrence River 
and through Lake Ontario, Niagara River, Lake 
Erie, St. Clair River, and Lake Huron, Macki- 
naw Straits and Fox River, thence down the 
Wisconsin to the Mississippi. They descended 
it as far as the Arkansas; and, convinced that it 
flowed south into the Gulf of Mexico instead of 
west, proceeded to return to Canada. Worn out 
by the hardships, Pere Marquette died on the 
banks of the Illinois River and Joliet proceeded 
alone to bear the news to Quebec. 

Inflamed with the desire of establishing 
France's power through the heart of the conti- 
nent from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that 
of the Mississippi, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La 




MAP OF LOUISIANA. 



-Courtesy La. State Museum. 



8 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



Salle, left Quebec, February 2, 1682, to explore 
the MississipiDi tlirougli its entire length. He 
reached the mouth on April 6th, claimed for 
France all the land watered by the Mississippi 
and its tributaries, and named it Louisiana in 
honor of Louis XLV., King of France. It was 
the desire of La Salle to 
establish a chain of forts 
from the St. Lawrence 
to the Mississippi. On 
liis return to Canada, he 
went to France, where 
the government fitted 
out an expedition for 
him. In 1684, he landed 
oh the coast of Mata- 
gorda Bay in Texas, 
having failed to find the 
mouth of the Missis- 
si]3pi. Soon he lost his 
vessels. In attempting 
to find the Mississippi 
River and reach Canada 
liy way of that river, he 
was murdered by one of 
his followers. 

France at the Close 
of the Seventeenth Century. France had 
risen, through the skill of Louis XIV. and the 
genius of his ministers, to the dominance of the 
affairs of Europe. Though an able ruler, Louis, 
"le Grand," was not farsighted. After the 
death of Colbert, the great financier, he gave 
no attention to the development 
of France's colonies, which had 
l)een one of the cherished 
plans of the able Comptroller. 
In 1689, the Count of Pontchar- 
train was en,t rusted with the 
finances. The treasury was de- 
pleted by the constant strain 
upon it caused by the continuous 
European wars, the development 
of the interior of France, ma- 
terial encouragement given to 
commerce and manufactures, 
erection of such costly struc- 
tures as Versailles, the Louvre 
and Hotel des Invalides. The nation was groan- 
ing under the burden of taxation which had been 
thus necessarily increased. In the endeavor to 
solve this mighty financial problem, Pontchar- 
train, following Colbert's policy, turned his at- 





tention to the development of the colonies. He 
l)egan with Louisiana, as yet a wild, trackless 
wilderness, extending from the Province of 
Canada on the north and the English colonies 
on the Atlantic, to the Eocky Mountains, the 
Spanish province of Mexico, and the Gulf of 
Mexico on the south. As 
the seventeenth century 
saw the struggle among 
the European nations 
for control of Europe, so 
the eighteenth century 
was to see the conflict 
for supremacy in North 
America carried on be- 
tween France and Eng- 
land. As a preparation 
for this struggle, France 
proceeded to establish 
settlements in her terri- 
tory along the Gulf. 

Early Colonization 
of Louisiana. Pierre Le 
Moyne d 'Iberville was 
chosen in 1698 to settle 
Louisiana. An able sea- 
man, brave, energetic, 
inured to hardshijis by his life on the frontier 
of Canada, Iberville was in every way suited to 
the accomplishment of the difficult task. With 
four ships and two hundred emigrants, he 
crossed the Atlantic, and after touching at 
San Domingo and Pensacola, at which latter 
place he found the Spaniards 
already established, anchored in 
Mobile Bay. After cruising among 
the islands along the coast, they 
reached the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi on March 2, 1699, and for 
the first time since La Salle's 
memorable visit, the solemn 
notes of the Te Deum resounded 
through the dismal swamps. 
Iberville ascended the Missis- 
sippi as far as Red River and 
returned by the same route to 
the mouth of Bayou Manchac, 
where he, accompanied by 
three companions and an Indian guide, 
left the others to continue their way by 
river, and entered Bayou Manchac; thence 
through Lakes Maurepas, Pontchartrain and 
BorgTie, to Mississippi Sound and Mobile Bay, 



LOUIS XIV. 
— Courtesy La. State Museum, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



wLich he thus reached before the river party. 
As he had found no spot on the river free from 
the annual overflow, he erected a fort on the east 
side of Biloxi Bay (named after an Indian 
tribe), where is now Ocean Springs, and called 
it Biloxi. Iberville left Louisiana in order to 
take part in the war of the Spanish Succession 
(Queen Anne's War), and entrusted the gov- 
ernorship to his younger brother, Bienville. A 
settlement was made on Mol)ile Bay, to which 
the capital was removed from Biloxi. In 1704, a 
ship bringing twenty 
.girls for the colonists 
aiTived. Intei'nal dis- 
sensions, lack of funds 
and food, low class of 
iramigTants, unfavor- 
al)le natural con- 
ditions, fever visita- 
tions, retarded the 
development of the 
colony. 

Louisiana a Pro- 
prietary Colony 1712- 
1717. Louis XIV. be- 
came tired of the 
burden of Louisiana, 
and granted the prov- 
ince, with exclusive 
control of the trade as 
far north as Illinois, 
to Anthony Crozat, a 
weal thy Paris banker, 
who was to give the 
king a share in the 
precious metals and 
stones. Cadillac was 
appointed governor 
by the proprietor, 
with Bienville as lieu- 
tenant-governor. A 
trading post was es- 
tablished at Natchi- 
toches and at a few other places, and ti'ade with 
Mexico was vainly sought. Cadillac declared 
war against the powerful Natchez Indians for 
having murdered some Frenchmen, and sent 
Bienville with a small force against them. He 
succeeded by strategy in decoying the leaders 
into his hands and forced them to accept his 
terms. De I'Epinay now became governor, but 
met with no better success than Cadillac. As 
Crozat had parted with a large part of his 



PIKRRR LE MOY 



fortune in the endeavor to make money out of 
Louisiana, he decided to restore the king's gift 
by resigning the charter. 

2. PROPRIETORSHIP OF THE COMPANY 
or THE WEST. 

Company of the West. In 1717, the French 
Grovernment chartered a company to take over 
Louisiana. At the head of this company was 
John Law, a Scotchman, who, by his bold finan- 
cial schemes, had 
dazzled the poor re- 
gent, the Dvlg d 'Or- 
leans, and obtained 
great influence in 
the management of 
the government's 
finances. The com- 
])any received a twen- 
ty-five-year charter, 
and promised during 
that period to send 
over six thousand 
white persons and 
three thousand Afri- 
can slaves. There 
were at that time 
seven hundred whites 
in Louisiana. Law's 
great insight into the 
condition of the coun- 
try was displa3fed in 
liis advertising among 
the people of the Low- 
lands of Europe for 
emigrants to Loui- 
siana; he established 
a band of these Ger- 
mans on his own land 
grant on the Arkansas 
NE DiBERviLLE. Rivcr. BieuviUe was 

-Courtesy La, State Museum, reinstated g V e r U r , 

and immediately made plans for a settlement on 
the Mississippi River. 

Founding of New Orleans, 1718. Iberville 
had proven the land along the left bank of the 
river, south of Bayou Manchac, to be a real 
island, surrounded by the waters of the Missis- 
sippi, Bayou Manchac, the three lakes, and the 
Giilf of Mexico. Bienville chose for the site of 
his settlement an elevation on this island one 
hundred ten miles from the river's mouth, be- 




10 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



1 weoii the head of Bayou St. John and the river. 
This location iiresented many advantages over 
the surrounding country; the land was higher; 
it was accessible by two waterways, by the Mis- 
sissippi and by the lakes and Bayou St. John; 
it was well known to the Indians of that dis- 
trict as the home of the Houma Indians, hence 
could be a good Indian trading post. Even 
though this land was elevated above the rest of 
the country, it was subject to frequent over- 
flows, and Was then 
scarcely more than a 
swamp presenting 
elevations, and had 
all the disadvantages 
of an uncleared low- 
land in a semi-tropical 
climate. To this spot, 
in 1718, Bienville sent 
the Sieur le Blond de 
la Tour and fifty men 
to clear the under- 
growth and lay out 
the city. De la Tour 
arranged the settle- 
ment in the shape of 
a rectangle facing 
the river, and in the 
middle marked off a 
square to be used as 
a Place d'Armes, to 
the rear of this to be 
the church, school and 
government house. 
Barracks and a few 
huts were erected, and 
to this crude settle- 
ment Bienville gave 
the name of La Nou- 
velle Orleans in honor 
of the Eegent, the Due 
d'Orleans. Storms 
and fever visitations, 

prevented the immediate growth of the little 
settlement. 

New Orleans, the Capital, 1722. "When Bien- 
ville had requested that New Orleans be made 
tlie capital of the colony, the directors refused, 
saying it could not be safely reached by large 
vessels. In 1722, Bienville had his chief en- 
gineer, Pauger, examine the mouths of the Mis- 
sissiijpi; he reported eighteen feet of water in 
southeast pass, and suggested that if dikes were 




JEAS B.UTISTE LE MOYNE DE BIENVILLE. 



built along this pass and the others closed, the 
current would, by its own power, keep sand out 
of this pass. It was in accordance with this 
plan that, nearly two centuries later, Eads con- 
structed the jetties. Bienville had one of his 
vessels taken through the pass of the Balize. 
The directors, on receiving the reports of these 
investigations, yielded to Bienville and New 
Orleans was made the capital. According to 
Pere Charlevoix, who visited New Orleans in 
this yeai', the town 
consisted of a hun- 
dred disorderly, bar- 
rack-like buildings, a 
wooden storehouse, 
and two or three 
homes that woiild not 
ornament a French 
\illage; nevertheless, 
lie foresaw a great 
luture for this city, 
found its location 
superior to that of 
Pome and Paris, and 
declared it would be 
"one day ^ and per- 
haps that day is not 
far distant — an opu- 
lent city and the me- 
tropolis of a great and 
rich colony." Three 
years previous, the 
first negTo slaves had 
been introduced, five 
hundred in number. 
New Orleans ' posi- 
tion near the mouth, 
controlled the south- 
ern entrance to the 
whole country be- 
tween the Alleghenies 
and the Eockies, for 
the province of Lou- 
isiana was then only accessible by the rivers 
draining its vast extent, all of which contributed 
their waters to the Mississippi long before it 
reached the point opposite La Nouvelle Orleans. 
Failure of Law's Bank. Law's great bank 
in Paris failed at this time, ruining the majority 
of those connected with him. The poor Germans 
whom he had located on the banks of the 
Arkansas managed to reach New Orleans, and 
there prayed Bienville to send them back to 



— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



The mew ORLEANS BOOK 



11 



their homes. He persuaded Uieiii to settle along 
the river above the city. Thus was formed the 
nucleus of the German settlement on the banks 
of the Mississippi which is to this day called 
German Coast. 

As slaves continued to be received, laws had 
to be made for their governance ; Bienville drew 
up the Black Code, a set of laws which has been 
equally Avell praised and blamed. About the most 
important provision was 
that forbidding the inter- 
marriage of the black and 
wliite races, which is still 
enforced in Louisiana. 
Bienville was now recalled 
and Perrier appointed to 
succeed him. 

Grovernorship of Per- 
rier. Pori'ier accouiplished 
many improvements. He 
had a levee eighteen feet 
wide and nine hundred feet 
constructed in front 



long 



JOHN LAW. 
— Coiivtesy La. State Museum. 



of New Orleans and continued for eighteen miles 
above and below the city. The inliabitants fur- 
nished tlieir slaves to do the work and the gov- 
ernment fed them while they were so engaged. 
To protect the city against Indian inroads, a 
stockade with eight little forts was erected. The 
first sanitary measure was now undertaken, 
namely, as Perrier termed it, ventilating the city 
l)y clearing the forest between the city and Lake 
Pontchar train; lack of funds and means pre- 
vented its completion. Taxation was unknown; 
hence the only revenues available for public 
improvements were those furnished by the 
home government. 

Need of Women. There were few women 
of good character in the colony; conse- 
quently many of the better settlers, missing 
their homelife in France, desired to return. 
It thus became evident that, if the settle- 
ment were to be permanent, the men must 
have good wives to make homes for them. 
An experiment in Indian wives was tried; 
but as one dusky bride, on returning from 
Prance, where her marriage to a French 
officer had been performed at court with 
great pomp, grew tired of civilization and, 
having sought again the haunts of her tribe, 
was influenced by them to betray her hus- 
band's post, it was deemed an unwise in- 
novation. When Bienville left the colony, 



in 1724, he promised to send a band of good 
women over as soon as possible. In 1727, the 
"Casket Girls" (Filles a la cassette), so called 
because of each having received a box contain- 
ing her trousseau, arrived and were placed under 
the care of the Ursulines until they should be 
married. 

Education. In 1751, Bienville granted to a 
company of Jesuits a 
plantation which, by 
later extensions, up to 
1745, occupied about 
the area of the pres- 
ent First District. 
Here, in 1727, the 
Jesuits establislied a 
church and mission 
center. Their planta- 
tion became the first 
agTicultural school of 
Louisiana, for here 
Duc D'ORLEANs. t'lcy iutroduced the 

— Courtesy La. state Museum. pT^lJtiy at ion of the 

orange, fig, sugar cane (1751), indigo plant, and 
myrtle, from which was obtained myrtle wax; 
these became staple crops and the industry and 
enterprise of the Fathers a good example to the 
other colonists. The order was suppressed 
through political reasons in 1763 and their great 
plantation confiscated by the king of Spain and 
sold for about one hundred eighty thousand 
dollars. 

A convent of Capuchins was established ad- 
joining the church, of which they took charge. 




' ^ ,: ''b'"- ', , ■ ; _ . _ ', . . 



MAP OF 1728. 



— Ooui'tesy La. State Museum. 



12 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



besides conducting the regular parish school. 
The hoys, however, had to be sent to France for 
a good education. 

The girls of New Orleans were more fortu- 
nate, for, in 1727, Bienville had induced the 
Ursuline Nuns to establish a convent there. 
They were first located in Bienville's former 
home, until their convent on Chartres and Ursii- 
line streets was completed in 1730; this build- 
ing is the oldest in the United States, west of 
the Alleghenies, and the school conducted by 
the sisters was the first in the United States to 
be opened for girls. 

Life in New Orleans in 1730. The city ex- 
tended from Bienville to Ursuline streets, and 
from the river to Dauphine street. The Place 
d'Armes was located in the central square 
facing the river, and to the rear of it was the 
church and convent of the Capuchins; further 
down, on what are now Hospital and Ursuline 
streets, Avere the convent of the Ursulines, the 
hospital, and barracks; the homes of the colo- 
nists clustered about the Place d'Armes and 
these principal buildings; the homes were built 
of wood and soft brick, and, like all pioneer 
homes, presented little comfort. Greased paper 
or linen was used in the windows instead of 
glass, and torches or the ill-smelling myrtle wax 
candle furnished artificial light. Nevertheless, 
according to the letters of Sister Madeleine 
Hachard, an Ursuline nun, to her family in 
France, the people dressed, had the same man- 
ners, and partook of the same foods as the 
people in France. Sister Madeleine wrote that 
the ladies knew how to paint and rouge as did 
those in France, and that their manners were 
as charming; she was much surprised to enjoy 
cafe an lait and chocolate for breakfast. There 
were now five thousand whites and two thousand 
blacks in the colony; the white population con- 
sisted of French, Germans, and Canadians; the 
blacks were negi'oes from Africa. 

Natchez War. The greed of the French com- 
mander at Fort Rosalie in Mississippi, for the 
best lands, had urged him to seize the "White 
Apple village from the Natchez. As a result, 
the Indians fell upon the fort and settlement and 
massacred two hundred men, taking the women 
and children into captivity. Perrier fitted out 
an expedition and marched against them; but 
they managed to escape by strategy. They took 
.their last stand at Sicily Island in the northern 
section of the state; here, after being forced to 



give up their white captives, the gTeater number 
of the braves escaped to the Chickasaws. In 
consequence of this drain upon its funds, the 
Company of the West gave up its charter. Lou- 
isiana again became a royal colonj^ Perrier was 
recalled and Bienville reappointed as governor. 

3. NEW ORLEANS, 1731-'63. 

Negro Insurrection, 1732. In the attempt to 
put down the Natchez, the Louisianians had 
even armed and trained their negro slaves. The 
negroes then rose in revolt. The insurrection 
was not suppressed until the leaders had been 
put to death — the women on the gallows, and 
the men on the wheel. The heads of the men 
were put on posts at each end of the town to in- 
spire fear in probable future insurrectionists. 

Chickasaw War. Bienville saw the necessity 
of defeating the Chickasaws, the harborers of 
the Natchez warriors, if peace were to be re- 
stored in Louisiana. In 1736, he marched 
against them in northern Mississippi. Through 
English help, they were able to defeat Bien- 
ville's army, taking 
many captives; these 
poor unfortunates 
were burned by the 
Indians as Bienville 
bitterly withdrew the 
remnant of his army. 
He fitted out another 
expedition, which was 
even more overwhelm- 
ingly defeated. Re- 
pulsed by the Indians 
and worn out by the 
trials and hardships 

MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL. ^f ^j^^ COloUy, the 

-Courtesy La. State Museum, p^thcr of LouisiaUa 

asked to be recalled. His request was gi^anted 
and the Marquis de Vaudreuil, "le grand Mar- 
quis," was appointed to succeed him. 

Improvements. De Vaudreuil 's rule was a 
period of development. The levees, so necessary 
to the good of the country, were continued and 
made better. In 1737, Jean Louis, a poor sailor, 
laid the foundation of one of the city's greatest 
institutions — the Charity Hospital. Its first 
quarters were in a building on Rampart street, 
between St. Louis and Toulouse. English occu- 
pation of the Ohio Valley drove out many of the 
French settlers, who then flocked to New Or- 




THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



13 



leans. This sudden influx of people forced the 
government to erect more commodious barracks 
in the lower part of the city by the river front, 
■where is now Barracks street. Sixty more girls 
of good character were sent over in the care of 
the Ursulines. New Orleans became the trade 
center of the colony. Hides, tobacco, indigo, 
rice, and a little cotton and sugar were sent to 
her by the other sections of Louisiana for ex- 
port. Cotton was introduced in 1740. As a 
slave could pick not more than six pounds a day, 
it was not extensively raised imtil after Whit- 
ney's invention of the gin, when, with the gin, 
a negro might clean a thousand pounds a day. 
The Jesuits brought in sugar-cane in 1751 from 
San Domingo and cultivated it on their planta- 
tion. A few years later, Dubreuil devoted a large 
plantation to the cultivation of sugar-cane, 
building thereon the first sugar mill in Lou- 
isiana; his plantation was located where Es- 
planade avenue is to-day. The method of granu- 
lating was unknown; the sugar produced was 
hard, sticky, gluey; tafia, a drink resembling 
rum, was made from it. The export of this sugar 
to France was attempted in 1765, but was given 
up owing to a large portion of it having leaked 
out of the barrels. 

Obstacles to Progress. One of the great 
hindrances to progress was the unstable con- 
dition of the currency, which was changed three 
times during this period; finally the king and 
Council of State of France interfered and put a 
stop to changes in the currency. Lack of money 
also militated against the colony's advance. The 
monopoly system, by which the government 
gave or sold to an individual or company the 
sole right to operate an industry, is of its very 
nature detrimental to the good of a community. 
The Louisiana government not only supported 
monopolies, but even arbitrarily regulated tlie 
price at which produce, such as tobacco, rice, 
etc. should be sold. Again, the people had no 
voice in their government; frequently laws and 
regulations were formulated in France by people 
ignorant of the conditions in Louisiana. 

Fourth French and Indian War. France and 
England, during these years, were approaching 
their final struggle for commercial, naval and 
colonial supremacy. Rivals in Europe, India 
and America, the two nations, for over half a 
century, had kept the world of that day in a 
constant state of war. In North America, France 
had established her power in Canada and Lou- 



isiana, and, by a system of forts extending from 
the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of the 
Mississippi, had sought to make her position 
invulnerable ; her last step in that dii'ection had 
been the erection of Fort Duquesne at the junc- 
ture of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers, 
where they unite to form the Ohio River. This 
position at the head of the Ohio Valley might 
be said to be the key to the whole system of 
French Forts. The English had established 
their control on the Atlantic coast from Maine 
to Florida. The Virginians realized the im- 
portance of Fort Duquesne and sent Major 
George Washington to dislodge the French. He 
failed, and a British army led by Braddock 
against it in 1755, met with crushing defeat. 
The war that then began is known in Europe as 
the Seven Years' War. At first, victory favored 
the French; but in 1757, William Pitt, becoming 
Prime Minister of England, changed the tide of 
victory to the English side. The war was prac- 
tically ended by the surrender of Quebec and 
Montreal to the English; the former in 1759, and 
the latter in 1760. Peace was not concluded 
until 1763, when a treaty was signed in Paris. 
By this treaty, France ceded to England Canada, 
Cape Breton Island, and Louisiana as far west 
as the Mississippi River, excepting the Isle of 
Orleans. England had captured Manila and 
Havana from the Spaniards, but returned them 
on Spain ceding Florida to her. 




MAP OF NEW ORLEANS, 17G3. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



14 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



Government Under French Rule. Tlie Lou- 
isiana province 'was governed by a Superior 
Council, composed originally of two members, 
namely, the governor and commissary. Gradu- 
ally the membership was extended to twelve 
persons. This council was the supreme legis- 
lative and judicial body in the colony. That 
does not mean that all laws for Louisiana were 
made in the colony; many were made in France, 
and all others had, of course, to accord with 
French law. "The Custom of Paris" became 
the basis of colonial law. Louisiana was divided 
into nine districts, each having a commandant 
and judge, but these were subject to the Superior 
Council. The people, unlike the English colo- 
nists, took no part in their own government: 
however, on the whole, considering the times, 
the colony was governed well and liberally. 
There was broader religious toleration in Lou- 
isiana than in most of the English colonies along 
the Atlantic coast. 

' Changing Ownership. In 1763, the Treaty 
of Paris was concluded between France and 
England; by this treaty, England gained all the 
territory east of the Mississippi, except the Isle 
of Orleans. On November 3, 1762, Louis XV. 
bad, by the secret treaty of St. Ildefonso, given 
all Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, and the 
Isle of Orleans to his cousin, Charles IH. of 
Sjiain. Governor Kerlerec, the successor of 
Vandreuil, had been recalled to France, and on 



charge of having misapropriated the colony's 
funds, had been thrown into the Bastille. D'Ab- 
badie then became governor. It was not until 
October, 1764, that the French king notified the 
governor of the transfer of Louisiana, nearly 
two years previous, to Spain, and ordered him 
to surrender Louisiana to accredited Spanish 
commissioners when they should present them- 
selves. The people heard the tidings with dis- 
may, and could not be convinced that it was 
final. A convention assembled in New Orleans 
and sent Jean Milhet, one of the wealthiest mer- 
chants, with a petition to the king entreating 
him to take them back under French control. 



ll^^^^B^L "^ uHB^H^^^hI 


® 



CHARLES III. OF SPAIN. 

— Courtesy La. SLjte Museum. 



LOUIS XV. 
— Courtesy La. State JIuseu 



SECTION II. SPANISH DOMINATION. 



1. MANIFESTATION OF THE SPIRIT OF 
LIBERTY, 1766- '68. 

Don Antonio de Ulloa. Four years after the 
cession of Louisiana to Spain, the Spanish gov- 
ernment sent over Don Antonio de Ulloa as gov- 
ernor of the province. LTlloa was a distin- 
guished scientist, but, by his lack of judgment 
and tact, imfitted to occupy his new position. 
He wrote from Havana to Aubry, who, on the 
death of d'Abbadie, had succeeded to the con- 
trol of affairs, of his appointment as governor 
and early arrival in Louisiana; yet, when he 
reached New Orleans, he refused to present his 
credentials, and removed neither the French 
officials nor the French flag. Louisiana had a 
joint Spanish and French government, For 



seven months he absented himself from the city 
to await at the Balize for the coming of his 
Peruvian bride. He or- 
dered the merchants not 
to sell their goods until 
"just and intelligent 
persons" had insiaected 
them and listed the 
prices. 

Conspiracy of Octo- 
ber, 1768. The mer- 
chants called upon the 
Superior Council to pre- 
vent the enforcement of 
PON ANTONIO DE ULLOA. these reguktious. Led 

-^3ouitesy La. state JfuseuiB. W I^afreuiere, DoUCCt, 




THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



15 



the Milliets and others, a conspiracy was formed 
for the expulsion of UUoa and the seizure of the 
city. Noyan and Villere, with their followers, 
secured control of the city, forcing Ulloa to flee 
for safety to a Spanish vessel in tlie harbor. The 
patriots drew up a memorial of Ulloa 's outrages 
and sent a copy to him in Havana. They then 
formed the project of organizing a republic and 
union of all American colonies. The plan failed. 
The times were not yet ready for such a change. 

2. ESTABLISHMENT OF SPANISH CON- 
TROL, 1769-'70. 

. Suppression of the Revolution. Spain de- 
cided to keep Louisiana. It would serve as a 
good bulwark be- 
tween the English pos- 
sessions and valued 
Mexico. Don Alexan- 
der O'Reilly became 
the new governor, 
and with three thou- 
sand six hundred 
Spanish troops and 
twenty-four vessels, 
arrived at New Or- 
leans in August, 1769. 
The leaders of the 
DON' ALEXANDRo O'REILLY, couspiracy of '68 

—Courtesy La. state Museum. tllOUgllt of leaving 

the colony. Aubry, who was in constant com- 
munication with d 'Eeilly, advised them not to, 
as they would be treated 
with clemency. However, 
events proved the contrary. 
They were entrapped, and 
five of the principals, in- 
cluding Lafreniere and 
Noyan, were shot October 
25, 1769 ; six others were con- 
fined in various pr'isons. 

Change in Government. 
O'Reilly abolished the Su- 
perior Council and replaced 
it by the Cabildo, in which 
some of the memberships 
were held for life. The gov- 
ernor presided over the Ca- 
bildo in person. Spanish 
laws were substituted for the 
French, but as both were 
based on the Roman code, 





this did not cause much change. The Spanish 
language became the official tongue, though 
French was permitted in notarial and judicial 
acts in the parishes. A system of taxation was 
organized which provided a regular revenue for 
the city: a shipping tax was devoted to the con- 
struction and improvement of the levees. Com- 
merce was greatly benefited by the opening of 
free trade with Cuba. A census taken gives the 
population of New Orleans at three thousand 
one hundred ninety, of which one thousand nine 
hundred one were free persons, one thousand 
two hundred thirty slaves, and sixty Indians; 
there were four hundred sixty-eight houses. 

3. SPANISH DEVELOPMENT OF NEW OR- 
LEANS, 1770-1800. 

Improvement of Trade Laws. When 'Reilly 
came to New Orleans, the English controlled the 
trade. This was soon stopped by English ships 
being prohibited entrance into the port. Under 
certain restrictions, trade was allowed with 
Campeachy and the French and Spanish West 
Indies. Trade in slaves from these islands was 
forbidden because of the revolutionary spirit 
existing there, but encouragement was given to 
the Guinea slave trade. Grovernor Galvez per- 
mitted free trade with France and the Thirteen 
American Colonies in 1778. Merchants from 
Boston, New York and Philadelphia soon opened 
business houses in New Orleans. 

Assistance Given to American Revolution. 
Galvez allowed Oliver Pol- 
lock, an American merchant, 
to collect arms and anununi- 
tion and send them by a fleet 
of canoes to Fort Pitt for 
delivery to the Americans. 
In 1779, Spain allied herself 
to the Thirteen Colonies and 
France against England. 
Galvez immediately marched 
against Fort Manchac, Baton 
Rouge, Mobile and Pensa- 
cola, and drove the English 
from these forts. The Treaty 
of Paris, 1783, confirmed 
Spain in the possession of 
this territory, granted free 
and open navigation of the 
Mississippi River to the sub- 
'^urte^sy La. state Museum, jects ©f Grcftt Britain aud 



16 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



the United States, and gave thirty-one degrees 
North Latitude as the southern boundary of the 
United States. 

Great Fires of 1788 and 1794. The couflagi-a- 
tion of 1788 originated in a Spanish official's 
private chapel on Chartres street, near St. Louis. 
It destroyed the cen- 



tral portion of the 
town, where were the 
commercial quarter, 
the principal resi- 
dences, government 
house, arsenal, prison, 
church, and Capuchin 
convent. Nineteen 
squares were devas- 
tated, with a loss of 
eight hundred fifty- 
six houses. In 1794, 
some children acci- 
dentally set fire to a 
hay store on Royal 
street. Two hundred 
twelve homes were 
destroyed. The ca- 
thedral, recently re- 
built, escaped. The 

financial loss occasioned by this fire exceeded 
that of the first, and has been estimated at two 
million six hundred thousand dollars. Camps 
were opened in the Place d'Armes and on the 
levee to shelter the homeless population. 

Spanish Rebuilding of the City. The con- 
flagration had a most beneficial effect on the 
city. It was seen that the material generally 
used for buildings was highly inflammable and 
assisted tbe fire in its ravages. Carondelet urged 
the use of tile roofs instead of shingles, and 
even offered a pre- 
mium on them. The 
old city gradually 
rose up as we see it to- 
(hiy, with its Spanish- 
American architect- 
ure — walls of adobe 
or In'ick, white or 
yellow lime -washed 
stucco, heavy doors 
and windows, bal- 
conies, portes-co- 
clieres, arcades, and 

BARON DE CARONDELET. imipr />onrts- twO 

—Courtesy La. state Museum. iiiuei COLllLte, LWO- 



story homes replaced the former low one- 
story. 

Work of Don Almonaster y Roxas. Don Al- 

monaster y Roxas was the greatest benefactor 

of New Orleans in that period. He opened his 

purse freely to his city in her hour of need, for 

all purposes. He 



_ g'-tl Ctn/U^. iticn ./ l},.„0'Cf» —■ 




PLAN OF THE GREAT CONFLAGRATION, 1788 




rented in peipetuity 
from the city the 
squares flanking the 
Place d'Armes, and 
where now stands the 
red Poritalba build- 
ings, erected a fine 
row of brick build- 
ings, which were im- 
mediately occupied 
by "boutiques," the 
retail stores. In 1784, 
he had the Charity 
Hospital, which had 
been destroyed by a 
hurricane five years 
])revious, rebuilt in 
brick at a cost of one 
hundred fourteen 
thousand dollars. 
Three years later, he gave the Ursuline nuns a 
chapel of stucco brick. The rebuilding of the 
church was begun in 1792 at his exj^ense and, 
when completed two years later, became the 
cathedral, as Florida and Louisiana had been 
united into one diocese, with the bishopric in 
New Orleans. The cathedral was constructed 
of brick, and had much 
the same appearance as 
to-day. Owing to crack- 
ing, the belfiys, which 
were added in 1815, 
Avere changed in the 
fifties. Don Almonaster 
gave not only to charity 
and religion, but to the 
government as well. In 
1795, he gave the city 
its town hall, or hall of 
the Cabildo, now com- 
monly known as si.uply 
the Cabildo; there has 
been one great change 
made m its appearance ^q^ andrk.s almonaster y 

Smce the time OI its —courtesy La. state Museum. 




THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



17 




CABELDO AS IT APPEARS TO-DAY, 

St 



founder— the addition of a French roof. Here, 

the Spanish Cabildo held its sessions and the 
formal transfer of Louisiana from France to the 
United States took place. 

Government's Improvements. The barracks, 
which had been begun l)y Kerlerec when the 
French settlers 
were driven out 
of other places 
by victorious 
English, were 
well completed 
and nearby a 
military hos- 
pital and chapel 
were built. 

Where now 
stands the Cus- 
tomhouse, a 
little wooden 
one was erect- 
ed; the "Old 
French Mar- 
ket," the "Halle 
de Boucheries," 

was also built then. By 1796, the excavation of 
Carondelet Canal and the ' ' old basin ' ' was com- 
pleted; thus New Orleans was connected with 
Bayou St. John and Lake Pontchartrain, and 
the city's drainage begun. 

San Domingo Refugees 
San Domingo caused 
many of the planters 
to come with their 
families and slaves to 
New Orleans. They 
brought with them the 
French revolutionary 
ideas of the period, 
which they easily in- 
troduced by means of 
such songs as the ' ' Mar- 
sellaise" and the "Ca 
Ira." 

Carondelet 's Fortifl- 
catioris. To protect the 
city against possible 
inroads of the Ken- 
tuekians and put down 
the developing revo- 
lutionary spirit with- 
in the city, Caronde- view in the interior of the cabildo, 

let had the city for- showing the emnd staircase and Wrought Iron Door, 



tified. Though these fortifications could 
not have accomplished the first piu-pose, they 
did secure the second; they consisted of five 
forts connected by a wall, in front of which was 
a moat. Fort St. Charles was on the lower river 



front and Fort St. Louis on ilic 



n]>per; each of 
iliese consisted 
i)f a fort and a 
) larapet eigh- 
teen feet thick, 
faced with 
l)rick; they 
could each ac- 
e o m m o d a t e 
one hundred 
fifty men, and 
were armed 
with twelve 
twelve and 
eigiiteen-poun- 
ders. Fort Bur- 
gundy was at 
the corner of 
Canal and 
Rampart ; Fort 



The revohitions in 




Joseph on the present Beauregard Square 
(formerly known as Congo Square); and Fort 
St. Ferdinand at the corner of Rampart and Es- 
planade avenue. The wall connecting these forts 
was fifteen feet high, and the fosse, or moat, seven 
feet in depth by a width of forty feet; Caron- 
delet Canal kept the water in it 
about three feet high. 

Granulation of Sugar, 1794. The 
indigo crop had not been a success 
because of the unfavorable climate 
and the devastation of an insect that 




view OF' THE CORRIDOR OF THE CABILDO, 

Showing Massive Arches, 



18 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 




ETIENNE DB BORE. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



fed on its leaves. Etienne de Bore decided to 
cultivate his entire plantation in sugar. This 
plantation was where CarroUton now is. He 
hired a skillful sugar-maker, a San Domingo 
refugee, to granulate the sugar. Mr. de Bore's 
family and friends had pleaded with him not to 
be so rash, but to no 
purpose. A number 
of planters went to de 
Bore's for the experi- 
ment. They gathered 
around the little mill 
to watch the process. 
Suddenly a cry arose, 
"It granulates!" De 
Bore's fortune was 
made and the famed 
Louisiana industry 
brought to light, 
opening wide a great 
door to prosperity. 

Commerce. By the 
Treaty of Paris, 1783, the Mississippi Eiver was 
free to Great Britain and the United States for 
navigation; but Spain did not intend to hold to 
this clause. Those Americans who had crossed 
over the Alleghany Mountains to seek homes in 
the rich valley of the Ohio took advantage of 
this privilege to build up a flatboat trade with 
New Orleans, exchanging their produce of hides, 
meat, flour, corn, etc., for manufactured goods. 
As early as 1786, some of these flatl.ioats were 
seized and confiscated. The enraged Westerners 
threatened to capture New Orleans, but waited 
for Congress to treat with Spain. Spain had 
two plans, namely, to induce the Kentuckians 
to come in as immigrants, or to generate among 
them the spirit of insurrection against the 
"negligence" of Congress, and thus separate 
the West from the East. Some Westerners did 
come, and located about the town of New 
Madrid. General James Wilkinson, a shrewd 
Kentuckian, sent a number of flatboats laden 

with western 
produce to New 
Orleans in 1787, 
and, by working 
on Governor 
Miro 's political 
fears, opened up 
the river trade. 
A FLATBOAT. Thc ucxt year he 

—Cfourtesy L.a. state MuBeunx. reCeiVQd trOm 




his agent in New Orleans the first cargo of dry 
goods for the Kentucky market. Trade was 
conducted with Pliiladelphia by means of false 
dealings, such as false arrests and imprison- 
ment. The fire of 1788 was made an excuse for 
permitting open trade, and Miro sent three ves- 
sels for various goods, especially flour. France 
controlled the city's Atlantic trade. The port 
of New Orleans was neither closed nor open; 
commerce could be carried on, but there was 
danger; all depended on the caprices of Spanish 
officials. In 1793, Spain granted to all her col- 
onies free trade with Europe and America. 

Carondelet succeeded Miro as governor. He 
endeavored through an agent, one Thomas 
Powers, to bribe the Kentucky leaders into sep- 
arating from the United States, but in vain. 

Spain and the United States concluded the 
Treaty of Madrid in October, 1795. New Or- 
leans was opened to the Americans as a point 
of deijosit for three years, free of duty or charge 
on produce, except a reasonable price for store 
rent. Should the king not wish to renew this 
privilege, he must assign some other point on 
the river where such privileges could be en- 
joyed. The commerce of New Orleans improved 
by leaps and bounds. The levee was the scene 
of noisy, excited bustling and business. Before 
the people could realize it, the three years had 
passed. The United States demanded that Spain 
evacuate her territory, as agreed in the two 
treaties. Morales, the intendant of the colony, 
closed the port of New Orleans and assigned no 
other place to the Westerners. American in- 
dignation rose high. President Adams secretly 
prepared an expedition to capture New Orleans. 
Its advance was prevented by the approaching 
retirement of Adams and Spain's disapproval of 
the intendant 's act. 

4. NEW ORLEANS IN 1800. 

Size. New Orleans extended from the river 
to North Rampai't and from Canal to Esplanade 
avenue. Beyond these boundaries there were 
houses scattered here and there, as in Faubourg 
Ste. Marie, a suburb being developed by Gravier. 
The population, in 1803, was ten thousand; the 
Creoles were greatly in the majority in the white 
population. 

Buildings. Tlie Spanish governors lived in 
a plain, one-story brick house at the corner of 
Toulouse au,d the Eue de la. Lavee ; it faced the 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



19 



river, had a parterre to one side and on tlie other Hospital and Military Hospital have also passed 



a latticed screened gallery; the kitchen and 
stables were in the well-fenced rear yard. The 
Orleans legislature occupied the building from 
1803 until it was burnt in 1827. The Charity 



^LOBU 




away. The Cathedral and Cabildo are still in- 
tact, and are splendid types of the Spanish 
architecture then prevalent. Bi'ick or stucco 
with a covering of cement were used in build- 
ing; the structures 
were massive, 
with arches and 
arched doorways, 
balconies and 
courtyards; they 
were to stand the 
wear of time and 
weather. The old 
French Market is 
also the product 
of these times, as 
is shown by the 
materials of which 
it is made and the 
large, cool arches. 
Many private 
buildings in the 
Vieux Carre date 
from this period. 

People. The 
city was cosmo- 
politan in its pop- 
ulation. There 
were the native 
Creoles, French, 
Spanish, English, 
Americans from 
the States, Ger- 
mans, Italians, 
refugees from San 
Domingo and 
Martinique, emi- 
grants from the 
Canaries, gipsies, 
negroes and In- 
dians. The French 
were the shop- 
keepers and farm- 
ers; the Span- 
iards, in the gov- 
ernment's em- 
ploy; the Cata- 
lonians, the shop 
and saloon - keep- 
ers. The Ameri- 
can, English, and 
Irish elenieiLt 



20 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



formed the chief commercial class. The dairy- 
men and truck-farmers were mostly Canary 
Islanders or Islennes; the fishermen, Italians; 
gipsies, who had given up their wandering life, 
turned musicians and dancers. The "Kain- 
tocks," Kentucky flatboatmen, formed a large, 
though floating population; they brought down 
the river on their flatboats the raw produce of 
the west and, after the sale of their cargoes, 
would give themselves up to riotous times. The 
Creoles cordially disliked them, as is shown by 
the custom among Creole mothers of telling a 
naughty child, "Tu n'es qu'un mauvais Kain- 
tock." 

Jackson Square. The Place d'Anaies, now 
called Jackson Square, was the Canal street of 
1800. Here, the troops were reviewed and the 
children played of an evening, on the barren 
ground, beneath the shadow of the wooden 
gallows, which stood about where General Jack- 
son's statue is to-day. The Cathedral, Capuchin 
convent, Cabildo, and government warehouses 
faced the square; the leading "boutiques" and 
restaurants were around, and to one side was 
French Market, where handkerchiefs, shoes 
and hats were sold along with meat, fruit and 
vegetables. The public landing was along the 
levee in front of the square. Here, on a holiday, 
the populace congregated; excitable Louisiani- 
ans, ever ready to defend their honor with their 
rapiers; Canadian trappers and hunters; At- 
takapas 'Cadians in home-made cottonades; in- 
dolent gentlemen banished for interference with 
the king or politics; fascinating Quadroon 
beauties from San Domingo; quiet, energetic 
Germans from German coast; brilliantly uni- 
formed Spanish soldiers; ex-galley slaves and 
convicts. Peddlers wheeled their goods about 
in coffin-shaped vehicles; turbaned women bal- 
anced large cans of milk and coffee on their 
heads. In the morning, the colored marcliandes 
kept the air resounding with cries of "callas 
tons ehauds," and at dusk, "belles chandelles." 

Streets. The streets were regTilarly laid out, 
and drained by wooden gutters; but there was 
no pavement. Pedestrians were accommodated 
by a wooden banquette four or five feet wide; 
between tlie sidewalks, the streets were, accord- 
ing to the state of the weather, either a marsli 
or a mass of dust. Wagons sank to the hub as 
they worked their way through them. Chartres 
street and the Eue de la Levee were the prin- 
cipal thoroughfares. 



Lights. The streets were lighted by oil lamps 
swung at the street intersections from ropes 
caught to the corners of the houses; their dim- 
ness forced the people to carry lanterns if they 
wished to see their way. The homes were lighted 
by myrtle wax candles, placed, for protection 
against drafts, within huge glass vases, open at 
the bottom to facilitate their being put over the 
candles. 

Water Supply. There were neither cisterns 
nor water system. The i:)eoi3le drank filtered 
river water, and, for household purposes, used 
dug wells on the premises. 

Servants. The servants were negro and In- 
dian slaves. But it was the negTo mammy who 
was the ideal servant as cook, nurse, and second 
mother to the children, despite the fact that she 
taught them the wretched patois, "gombo," of 
the Louisiana negro. This dialect consisted of 
a few hundred words, and lacked grammatical 
structure ; it was originated by the brute negroes 
of Africa, who found the French language too 
difficult. The manual work of the colony was 
done by slaves; people made a business of own- 
ing slaves, training them, and renting them out 
to those who did not possess any. The servants 
always dressed plainly; the women wore on their 
heads the brilliant bandannas, "tigiions." In- 
dian slaves were troublesome, and at length be- 
came so dangerous the United States govern- 
ment freed them; the result was a negro up- 
rising, which was only overcome after consider- 
able loss of life. 

Manner of Dress. The dress of the women 
previous to the coming of the San Domingo 
refugees was extremely simple and lacked taste; 
they wore no headgear except in winter, when 
a handkerchief served the purpose; their dress 
consisted of a short, round skirt and long 
basque-like overgarment; these two i^ieces were 
generally of different colors and much l)e- 
ribboned. The San Domingo women In-ouglit 
with them French fashions, and immediately 
converted the Creole ladies into adopting them. 
Ball dresses were made of embroidered muslins 
and brilliant taffetas, cut in the latest style and 
trimmed with fine, gold-worked laces. Much 
jewelry, such as ear-rings, collars, bracelets, 
rings and other adornments were introduced. 

M. Eobin, a traveler in Louisiana in 1803, 
wrote this about the men: "The men show 
themselves more enslaved to fashion than the 
women, going about in the hea\^' clothing of 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



21 



Europe, heads sunk in liigh collars, arms and 
hands lost in long sleeves, chins buried in triple 
cravats, and legs encased in high boots with 
great flaps." 

City Guaxdians. The military had the duty 
of preserving order. For this purpose a small 
band of soldiers were kept on duty at the cala- 
boose, and at stated intervals paraded through 
the streets, or appeared on the scene of disorder 
after the trouble had subsided. At night, it was 
their duty to call out the hour and the state of 
the weather. Their costume was very impos- 
ing; it consisted of a deep blue frock, crossing 
over which were black leather sti-aps to uphold 
a cartridge box, bayonet and scabbard; knee- 
breeches completed the outfit. They were armed 
with an old flint-lock musket and short sword. 

Promenades and Drives. The favorite walk 
was along the levee; there, at the ends of the 
streets, were a few backless benches where the 
promenaders met to rest and chat. Bayou Road, 
leading to Glentilly and Metairie, was the even- 
ing driveway of the citizens. 

Entertainment. The city boasted of one 
theatre, on St. Peter street, between Royal and 
Bourbon; it was a long, 
low cypress structure. 
A company of San 
Domingo actors and 
actresses rendered 
comedy, vaudeville, and 
comic opera in 1799. 
After a few years, the 
troupe declined, and 
were replaced by local 
talent. 

Dancing. Of all amuse- 
ments, dancing was the 
most popular. In a long 
room, about eighty feet 
by thirty feet, in a 
wooden building on 
Chartres, between St. 
Ann and Dumaine, the 
light-hearted people met 
twice a week to enjoy 
the Terpsichorean art ; 
one evening was for 
adults and the other for 
the children. The danc- 
ers paid fifty cents a 
head. Elevated boxes 
along the wall accommo- 



VI 


■ 


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NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 



dated the mammas and young wall flowers; seats 
to the front of these were for the fair dancers ; the 
men were allowed to stand. The music was fur- 
nished by gypsy violinists. There were also the 
famed ' ' cordon l^leu" balls given by the beautiful 
quadroon women, which were far more popular 
with the Creole: gentlemen and visiting strangers. 
Duelling. There existed among the men of 
that day the "code d'honneur," by which a 
gentleman fought another for anything, from 
an accidental mashing of a sensitive corn to an 
attack on his life or character. French custom 
considered a man's honor satisfied by the first 
dro]) of blood. The Creole fought with coliche- 
mards, Creole rapiers, sword canes, or pistols. 
Tliere were three noted duelling grounds, viz.: 
St. Antliony Square, in rear of the Cathedral, 
which was then tliickly hedged in; "The Oaks," 
near the crossing of Gentilly Road and Elysian 
Fields, where the more talked-of duels took 
place; and "Les Trois Capalins," three sister 
trees, on Metairie Road. 

The First Newspaper. 1794 saw the first 
newspaper, "Le Moniteur de la Louisiane," pub- 
lished in New Orleans. It was not very newsy, 
being more of a journal 
of government proceed- 
ings. Ten years later, 
the first English paper, 
the Gazette, was edited. 

SECTION 3. TRAN- 
SITION PERIOD. 



Louisiana Coveted by 
the United States and 
France. The United 
States realized the ne- 
cessity of possessing 
Louisiana for the devel- 
opment of the western 
section, and proceeded 
to look to its acquisition. 
Napoleon, the First 
Consul of France, de- 
sired to re-establish the 
colonial power of France 
in North America, and 
looked with a pleased 
eye upon Louisiana. 

Treaty of Luneville, 
February, 1801. The 
peace of Luneville 



22 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOlC 



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1 



LAUSSAT. 
— Ckjurtesy La. State Museum. 



closed the War of the Second CoaUtion. Na- 
poleon ohtained from the Austrian Emperor the 
cession of Tuscany in Italy, which, as the king- 
dom of Etruria, he transferred to the Prince of 
Parma, the Spanish Infanta's husband; in re- 
tm'n, Sixain secretly ceded Louisiana to France. 
The transaction became known in America in 
November, 1802. 

Unsettled Condi- 
tions in Louisiana. 
Not until March, 
1803, did the French 
Colonial prefect, 
Laussat, land in New 
Orleans. With Gov- 
ernor Salcedo and 
the Marquis de Casa 
Calvo, a former gov- 
ernor, he began prep- 
arations for the re- 
ception of General 
Victor, who was to 
receive the formal 
transfer of Louisiana 
from Spain. Once more the people were astir. 
They knew not what to expect of the lately 
established Republican Government in France. 

Purchase of Louisiana by the United States, 
April 30, 1803. President Jefferson realized the 
great danger to the United States in having a 
foreign power in 
possession of the 
mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi. He ap- 
pointed Monroe 
and Livingston to 
treat with Na- 
poleon for the pur- 
chase of the "Isle 
of Orleans. ' ' Na- 
poleon refused this 
offer, but, instead, 
proposed to sell the 
whole of Louisiana 
for fifteen million 
dollars. The two 
eommissionei's real- 
ized the good qual- 
ity of the bargain, 
and made the pur- 
chase' April 30, 
1803, trusting to 
Jefferson to secure 



its ratification by Congress. This Jefferson 
accomplished the following October, and ob- 
tained the authorization to take possession of 
the ceded territory. 

The Transfers. Instead of General Victor's 
arrival in July, came the news to New Orleans 




THOMAS JEFFERSON. 






%. tJH^vv^ 



y *|H | " 



V i J o \ 



COI'V OF .TBFF'F.RSON'S PROOLAiUTION OF A SPECIAL SESSIOX OF CONGRESS TO RATIFY THE 
PURCHASE OF LOUISLINA FROM FRANCE. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



23 



of the United States' purchase of Louisiana in 
the preceding April. On November 30, the 
troops were drawn up in the Place d'Armes and, 
in the hall of the Cabildo, Governor Salcedo de- 
livered the keys of the city 
to Laussat. Casa Calvo 
addressed the people in 
the name of the Spanish 
King, and released them 
from their allegiance to 
Spain; the Spanish flag- 
was lowered and that of 
France hoisted. Twentj^ 
days later the same cere- 
mony took place, with a 
change in the drainatis 
personniie; Laussat trans- 
ferred the province to the 
two American commis- 
sioners, Claiborne and 
Wilkinson; the former 
took charge of civil affairs 
and the latter of the mili- 
tary. With such sudden 
changes of nationalit}^, in 
which the Louisianians 
were handed about from 
one nation to another, 
without ever being con- 
sulted, is it any wonder that they appeared 
apathetic and uninterested? 



CESSION OF LOUISIANA TO THE UNITED STATES, 



SECTION 4. AMERICAN DOMINATION. 

1. New Orleans, 1803- '15. 

Commerce. The United States' purchase of 
Louisiana had an imme- 
diate effect on New Or- 
leans trade. The first half 
of 1803 showed an increase 
in tonnage of thirty-seven 
per cent over that of 1802; 
the exports exceeded two 
million dollars and the im- 
ports two million five hun- 
dred thousand dollars. 
The flatboat trade became 
enormous; their mooring 
was above the city, along 
what is now Tchoupi- 
toulas street. 

Suburbs or Faubourgs. 
Above the Terre Com- 
mune. Common street, was 
Mme. Grravier's planta- 
tion, part of the former 
Jesuit grant. In 1788, 
some streets were opened 
and lots marked off; it 
grew very little at first, 
until the coming of the 
Americans; it then became the commercial 
center of the city. The street names commemor- 






A VIEW OF NEW OELEANS FROM THE PLANTATION OF MAEIGNY, 1803. 



— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



24 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



ated the first owners, or the use the place was 
put to; as, for example: Uravier street, from 
Gravier, the original owner; Poydras street, 
■from the great philanthropist, whose home was 
located there; Magazine street, from the Spanish 
name for the great tobacco warehouse that stood 
on Magazine and Common; Camp street, from a 
slave camp located there, between Poydras and 
Girod. The aristocratic suburb was along the 
Bayou St. John road. Below the Vieux Carre 
was the Marigny plantation, which, when in- 
herited by Bei'nard Marigny, was opened up as 
a fanlxmrg and settled liy the French. To-day 
it is one of the most densely poinilated ])ortions 
of New Orleans; 

Orleans Territory, March 26, 1804. Congress 
divided Ijouisiana into two 
parts; the extent of the present 
state was known as Orleans Ter- 
ritory. The President appointed 
a legislative council and named 
Claiborne governor; certain 
Spanish land-gTants were nul- 
lified and an official inspection 
made of all titles ; the slave trade 
was interdicted. The Lonisiani- 
ans became indignant at the last 
regulation; insurrectionary sen- 
timents were placarded on the 
streets, copied by crowds, and 
when the police attempted to 
remove them they were driven 
away. However, the trouble 
went no further. But slaves con- 
tinued to be smuggled in by way 
of the lakes and ditferent bayous gov. w. c. 

and inlets. 

City of New Orleans, March, 1805. New Or- 
leans was incorporated as a city bj- the charter 
of March, 1805. The people, in electing alder- 
men, exercised their right of suffrage for the 
first time. 

Congress's Concessions to Orleans Territory. 
In March, 1805, Congress allowed the people of 
Oi'leans Territory to elect the House of Eepre- 
sentatives, and promised them statehood when 
the population should equal sixty thousand 
souls. 

Restless Spirit in City. The spirit of the 
l^dpulace was restless, owing to the unsettled 
conditions, viz., the war between Spain and 
Great Britain; presence of Casa Calvo and 
Morales; possibility of war between the United 




States and Spain ; and malignant hatred of some 
Americans. Casa Calvo and Morales were put 
out of the colony and the trouble with Spain 
passed over. Claiborne, writing to the Presi- 
dent in November, 1806, said: "Were it not for 
the calumnies of some Frenchmen, who are 
among us, and the intrigues of a few ambitious, 
unprincipled men, whose native language is 
English, I do believe that the Louisianians 
would be very soon the most zealous and faith- 
ful members of our Republic." 

Aaron Burr's Conspiracy. In June, 1805, 
Aaron Burr visited New Orleans; he brought 
letters of introduction from General Wilkinson 
to the best people. Claiborne tried the ensuing 
winter to strengthen the city against any pos- 
sible outbreak of war with 
Spain; but Wilkinson withdrew 
into Mississippi a whole com- 
pany from the total two hundred 
twenty soldiers. The governor 
of Mississipi^i warned Claiborne 
to beware of a conspiracy. In 
September, Wilkinson took 
charge of the troops at Natchi- 
toches; there, a certain Samuel 
Swartwout brought him letters 
from Burr. On October 20, Wil- 
kinson wrote to President Jef- 
ferson about Burr's nefarious 
schemes. Then, he went to New 
Orleans, demanded of Claiboi'ne 
the establishment of martial law 
and, on the governor's refusing, 
took things into his own hands 
and defied governor and courts 
alike. Aaron Burr was captured 
near Natchez in Mississippi; being released on 
bond to appear for trial at the next territorial 
court, he left Mssissippi; he was recaptured and 
tried in Virginia; though he was not convicted, 
his treasonalile designs were defeated. 

West Indian Immigration. The population 
more than doubled itself between 1803 and 1810. 
The war between France and Spain caused 
many whites and mulattos of San Domingo to 
become exiles; between May 19 and July 18, 
1809, thirty-four vessels from Cuba brought to 
New Orleans over one thousand eight hundred 
whites, almost as many free persons of color, 
and about two thousand slaves; in all, about five 
thousand seven hundred ninety-seven souls. 
Others followed from Cuba, Guadeloupe, and 



C; CLAIBORNE. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



25 



other islands, until the total reached ten thou- 
sand. Very few ever left the city. The Creoles 
of the West Indies were united with the Creoles 
of Louisiana by strong ties; they had the same 
religion, language, and political ideas, and had 
met with similar misfortune. This was the 
period of Creole domination; the city had few 
G-ernian and Irish citizens; the two thousand 
free persons of color were an indolent class ; the 
floating population of sailors from all parts, 
bargemen, flatboatmen, and raftsmen from the 
wild region of the Tennessee, Ohio, and Cum- 
lierland Rivers, were unruly and riotous, engag- 
ing in riots and brawls, 
and giving themselves 
up to shameful excesses 
on completing their 
journey. Strife i3er,- 
vaded the town. A riot 
was nearly caused by a 
newspaper article that 
reflected on Napoleon. 
Plays were put upon the 
theatre boards which 
caused the Ursulines to 
appeal to the governor 
for protection against 
public derision. 

Batture Riots of 1806. 
Two riots occurred over 
a contest between the 
public and some private 
citizens for possession 
of the batture formed 
by the Mississippi in 
front of Faubourg St. 
Marie. In the second 
riot, September 15, 1807, 
after the Supreme Court 
had given its decision, 
the people gathered by 
thousands on the batture; they were only dis- 
persed by the patient appeals of Governor Clai- 
borne and the recommittal of the case to the 
United States Courts. In August, European 
and American seamen met in a skirmish on the 
levee. "La Lanterne Magi que" was edited for 
the purpose of publishing libellous attacks on 
the government. Claiborne asked the commander 
of the United States troops in Mississippi to send 
hiui reinforcements. 

Admission of Louisiana as a State, April 30, 
1812. The population of Orleans Territory had 



now reached the 60,000-mark required by Con- 
gress as necessary for her admission as a state. 
A convention met in New Orleans in November, 
1811, to draw up a constitution; it was adopted 
as the State Constitution, January 28, 1812, and, 
on the following April 30, Louisiana was ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state. 

The "New Orleans." January 10, 1812, was 
a red-letter day in the city 's commercial history. 
On that day, the "New Orleans," a steam-pro- 
pelled vessel, built by Nicholas I. Eoosevelt (a 
relative 6f Ex-President Roosevelt) arrived on 
her maiden trip from Pittsburg. It was only 
five years previous that 
Fulton had invented the 
steamboat. 

Outlook on City's 
Future, 1812. New Or- 
leans' future appeared 
assured to be prosper- 
ous, once international 
politics should be 
cleared. Cotton, by 
"Whitney's invention of 
the gin had become one 
of the world's greatest 
industries. Steam navi- 
gation closely united 
New Orleans with the 
distant parts of the Mis- 
sissippi Valley. State- 
hood confirmed the 
people in the possession 
of their government and 
liberty. 

War of 1812. Eng- 
land's violation of the 
LTnited States' rights as 
a neuti-al and her as- 
sumption of the right to 
search American vessels 
and impress seamen on board, whom she consid- 
ered English citizens, precipitated war between 
the two nations. The War of 1812 was the after- 
math of the Revolutionary War and settled the 
remaining disputed points. 

Defenseless Condition of New Orleans. New 
Orleans was left imdefended by the attempt to 
make Canada the seat of the war. Wilkinson 
was ordered to occupy that part of Florida west 
of the Perdido River. The Creeks massacred 
350 whites at Fort Mimms, Mississippi. Drunken 
Choctaws roamed the streets of New Orleans. La- 




JEAN AND PIERRE LAFITTE AND DOMINIQUE YOU. 
From a Portrait by Jarvis, 1812. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum, 



26 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



fitte and his piratical smugglers held Barataria 
Bay and appeared daily in the city. Crevasses 
occurred, as well as fires. Though Claiborne 
labored assiduously, it was many months 
before he could 
muster the 1,000 
men called for by 
the President. In 
the meantime, Na- 
poleon's abdication 
enabled England to 
throw more energy 
into her campaigns. 
In August, Con- 
gress ordered Jack- 
son to proceed to 
New Orleans for 
its defense. The 
British had estab- 
lished themselves 
in Florida and 
were offering large 
rewards to all who 
would join them, 
especially the Bara- 
tarians. 

The Baratarians. 
The Baratarians 
were a band of 
French and South 
Americans, who 
claimed to be en- 
gaged in smuggling, 
not in piracy. The 
Lafitte brothers had 
obtained control 
over these daring 
characters and or- 
ganized them into a 
band. The English 
failed in their at- 
tempt to secure 
their assistance; in- 
stead, Lafitte of- 
fered their services 
to Claiborne, who 
refused them, as 
Colonel Eoss were 
their rendez-vous 





/»/>' 



Commodore Patterson and 
on their way to destroy 
on Barataria Bay. This 
was accomplished a few days later; the La- 
fittes escaped to the German Coast, while 
their followers made use of any available 
refuge. 



Andrew Jackson's Arrival. The arrival of 
Andrew Jackson on December 1st, created con- 
fidence and enthusiasm among the New Or- 
leanians. He immediately set to woi'k; fortified 
Fort St. Phillip, 
demolished its 
wooden barracks, 
mounted additional 
cannon ; inspected 
the countrj^ in and 
about the city, and 
instructed Gov- 
ernor Claiborne to 
have obstructed all 
bayous on the "Isle 
of Orleans" lead- 
ing to the Gulf. 
Through some un- 
explained over- 
sight. Bayou Bien- 
ville was not closed. 
By December 14th, 
the British fleet of 
eighty sail, led by 
Cochrane, the 
dreaded ravager of 
the Atlantic Coast, 
was in possession 
of Lake Borgne. 
Claiborne informed 
the Legislature of 
the arrival of the 
British fleet and ad- 
vised its adjourn- 
ment; the Legisla- 
ture did not comply 
with this advice, so 
Jackson, declaring 
the safety of the 
city required it, 
proclaimed martial 
law. Jackson later 
was fined $1,000 
for this, but was 
subsequently re- 
imbursed by the 
United States Government. Jean Lafitte now 
offered the services of the Baratarians to Jack- 
son, who accepted them. Jackson's armj' was a 
motley crew; every man capable of bearing arms 
was mustered into service; it was 5,000 strong, 
composed of Tennessee riflemen under Generals 
Carroll and Coffee, Creoles and French, freemen 



ANDREW JACKSON", 
liniature presented by Andrew Jackson to Edward Livingston, March 1, 1815, 
painted by Jean Francois Valle in New Orleans, by Jackson's orders, 

— Courtesy La. State Museum. 






%/a.<^ 



%4o-> 



FAC-SIMILE OF NOTE F'ROM ANDREAV JAClvSON TO EDWARD LIVINGSTON. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



27 



o£ color, Ghoctaw Indians, even prison inmates. 

The streets resounded with "Yankee Doodle," 

"La Marseillaise," and "Le Chant du Depart." 

Advance of the British. Cochrane com- 



from being tarnished with the suspicion of his 
being in league with the British. He made a 
bold dash for liberty, sped past his guards, and, 
unscathed by the shower of bullets sent after 




A GENERAL MAP OF THE SEAT OF WAR IN LOUISIANA AND WEST FLORIDA. 



-Courtesy La. State Museum. 



manded the fleet and Sir Edward Pakenham the 
land forces; in all, 9,600 veterans of Welling- 
ton's famed Peninsular campaign. Eeconnois- 
sance of Lake Borgne revealed the unclosed 
entrance to Bayou Bienvenue; 
the Amei'ican picket stationed 
there was easily overpowered, 
and the English boats passed 
up the bayou into Villere's 
canal. At half-past eleven in 
the morning, Greneral Keane's 
division came out upon the 
open plain at the rear of Gen- 
eral Villere's plantation, seized 
the home, and formed their 
camp. There was not a foot of 
fortification between the En- 
glish camp and New Orleans. 
General Villere had been locked 
up in his home. He realized 
the necessity of informing 
Jackson of the location of the 
British in order to save New 
Orleans and save his honor 




him, reached the swamp forest in the rear. Here 
he hid in the thick moss up in the trees until the 
English gave up the search; his faithful dog- 
having followed him, he was forced to end his 
life in order to keep his hiding- 
place in the tree concealed. He 
reached the. city in time to in- 
form Jackson of the enemy's 
advance. General Villere 's foot 
race, though little known, was 
far more hazardous than Paul 
Revere 's midnight ride. The 
English, by halting for re- 
inforcements, gave Jackson 
time to prepare for them. That 
evening, he sent the schooner, 
Carolina, to open her broad- 
sides on the British camp, while 
he attacked by land. The fight- 
ing lasted until stopped by the 
weather. The next morning, 
Jackson removed two miles 
nearer to New Orleans, to Rod- 
riguez's canal; here, he estab- 



GEN. JACQUES VILLERE. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum, 



28 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



lisliecl his fortifications, threw up breastworks, 
dug trenches, and put his ten g-uns to oppose the 
twenty-eight of the British. Skirmishing 
occurred nearly every day; but still the enemy 
made no great attack. Their delay strengthened 
Jackson's army. On 
December 30th, 300 
Acadians arrived ; two 
days later, 500 men from 
Baton Eouge; on Janu- 
ary 2nd, 250 Kentuck- 
ians, poorly clad and 
armed; the citizens of 
New Orleans immedi- 
ately collected $16,000, 
which was spent for 
clothing for them, the 
garments being made by 
the women of the city. 

Battle of New Or- 
leans, January 8, 1815. 
General Lambert's di- 
vision at last arrived. 
The British planned to 
make four simultaneous 
attacks: one on the op- 
posite side of the river 
and three on the New 
Orleans side. The first 
attack was delayed, the 
time allowed the troops 
being too short; hence, 
though it was success- 
ful, it occurred too late 
to be of any help. The 
English formed about 
400 yards from the 
American line, in a close 
column of sixty men 
front; burdened with 
heavy fascines of ripe 
sugar-cane, ladders, and 
weighty knap-sacks, 
they could move but 
slowly; with three 
cheers they were liter- 
ally led to the slaughter. 
The accuracy of the 
American fire tore out whole files of men. The 
British retreated and formed again, to meet 
with worse defeat. The soldiers could not be 
rallied for a third attack. Sir Edward Paken- 
ham and General Gibbs had fallen mortally 



wounded, and General Keane was severely in- 
jured; this left General Lambert in command. 
The English continued the fire from their bat- 
teries until two o'clock in the afternoon; but 
the Battle of New Orleans was over at nine- 



PLAN 

OF THE ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF THE 
AMERICAN LINES 

Below New Orleans, on the 8th January, 1815. 




MAP SHOWING THE LANDING Of THE BUmSH ARMY. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



thirty in the morning, when the attempt to storm 
the American line was abandoned, one hour 
after the signal had been given to begin 
fighting. January 9-18, an ineffectual attack 
was made on Fort St. Philip. The only explan- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



29 



ation for the 
defeat of so 
splendid an 
army by so 
poor a one, is 
in the deadly 
marksmanship 
of the Ken- 
tucky sharp- 
shooters and 
the slowness 
of the Britsih 
advance. 

Effects of 
the Great Vic- 
tory. Eejoic- 
ing in New 
Orleans knew 
no bounds. A 
public recep- 
tion in the 
Place d'Armes 
was tendered 
General Jack- 
son, during 
which he was, 
as the victors 
of old, crowned 
with laurel; he 
then attended 
the solemn 
services of 
thanksgiving- 
held in the Ca- 
thedral. There 
was little to 
mar the gen- 
eral joy, as 
only six of the 
defenders had 
been killed 
and seven 
wounded. The 
kindly assist- 
ance that 
would have 
been given to 
their own was 
generously ex- 
tended to the 
thousands of 
English dead 
and wounded. 











iJI^Jl^iiBBBB 



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'"^^ 'j' -' "ll ' *'. r^BBBBBB 

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'A' '.,vr,;-:j;/Onnn ifBiBBB 







30 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



On February 13, 1815, Admiral Coclirane wrote 
General Jackson tliat a treaty of peace liad been 
signed between the United States and Great 
Britain on December 24, 1814. Jackson received 
the official news on the following March 17th. 
On March 16th, Claiborne wrote to Mr. Monroe, 
Secretary of War, as follows: "Our harbor 
is again whitening with canvas; the levee is 
crowded with cotton, tobacco, and other articles 
for exportation. The merchant seems delighted 
with the prospect before him; the agriculturist 
finds in the high price for his products new ex- 
citements to industry." The discordant elements 
from that time gradually became welded into 
one harmonious whole. The patriotism of the 
Creoles was no longer doubted. Fighting side 
by side on the battlefield developed a feeling of 
brotherhood between the Creoles and Ameri- 
cans, and union of the two people by intermar- 
riage cemented the bond thus established. 



2. FROM 1815- '60. 

Commerce, 1815- '40. Steam navigation first 
appeared on the Mississippi in 1812. A move- 
ment was started after the War of 1812 to have 
the steamboats ply on the river. In 1817, 1,500 
flatboats and 500 
barges brought the 
produce of the 
great valley to New 
Orleans ; four years 
later, 287 steam- 
boats, 441 flatboats, 
and 174 barges 
moored along the 
city 's river front. 
The Faubourg Ste. 
Marie, the Ameri- 
can section of the 
city, became the 
trade center; be- 




ports and exports were valued at $17,000,000. 
The value of trade increased 75 per cent be- 
tween 1820 and 1830, and by 1835 was valued at 
$53,000,750; this increase was partly due to the 
extraordinary rise in prices throughout the 
country. 

Credit System in Business. There was an 
evei'-incr easing demand for cotton, and the rich 
agricultural resources of Arkansas, Mississippi, 
and Louisiana offered great returns even for the 
investment of borrowed money. Thus the credit 
system became the rule among the cotton, sugar 
and tobacco planters of these sections. New Or- 
leans advanced them millions in money at a high 
rate of interest, and huge quantities of supplies 
which were kept on hand in the citj^ In this way. 
New Orleans merchants and bankers enslaved 
the agricultural community, who were able to 
buy and sell only through them. Eeckless bor- 
rowing and lending kept the planter in constant 
debt and the city without capital. Planters' 
notes were based on the value of their slaves and 
tilled lands and, regarded by results, were al- 
most imaginary; but the system caused a great 
(amount of business, which in turn called in num- 
berless immigrants. 

Population. People came in from every part 
of the Imion and Europe; from 33,000. in 1815, 
the population in- 
creased to 41,000 
in 1820. But the 
morals were very 
lax. The Creoles at- 
tributed this to the 
immigrants; Gov- 
ernor Villere issued 
a special message 
lie cause of the 
' ' scandalous prac- 
tices almost, at 
every instant tak- 
ing place in New 
Orleans and its 



r>QnCQ nf +>.Q clool- VIE^^•, AS IT APPEARS TO-DAY, OF THE BANK OF LOUISIANA BUILDING, CORNER „,, 1, ,,„ 1, „ )) a t, A 
L-dLlSt; Ul inn feiaCis. OF royal and CONTI streets, erected in 1826. OLIUUIUO, clUU 



water in front of 

its batture, the flatboats moored there; thence 
arose great storehouses for the products brought 
down from the valley. The Vieux Carre re- 
tained control of the trade in coffee, indigo, 
sugar, rice, foreign fruits and wines; but cotton, 
tobacco, pork, beef, corn, flour, and northern 
and British materials were received into the 
American section. In 1825, New Orleans im- 



stated, ' ' Indeed, we 
should be cautious in receiving all foreigners. 
The great increase in population was due, in 
large measure, to the previous simple trade 
quadrupling itself. However, the increase in 
population was not proportionate to that in com- 
merce, largely due to the absence of manufac- 
tures ; between 1830 and 1840, the trade adanved 
75 per cent and the population only 20 per cent. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



31 



Tn this same period, Baltimore's population ad- 
vanced 25 per cent, Philadelphia's 39 per cent, 
and New York's 67 per cent. The number of 
inhabitants in the Mississippi Valley increased 
57 per cent, without any large towns arising. 
Travelers declared the extensive immorality was 
due to the San Domingo influence in carrying 
pleasures to excess and in their passion for 
gambling and duelling. South American fili- 
busters made New Orleans their headquarters. 

Position of New Orleans Among Cities of the 
United States. In 1840, New Orleans was fourth 
in population, New York, Philadelphia and Bal- 
timore taking the lead. In 1847- '48, she actually 
exceeded New York in exports of domestic 
products, and in total exports was surpassed 
only by New York; but her imports were far 
less; New York imported ten times as much and 
Boston over three times; her principal imports 
were coffee, iron, hardware, and French fancy 
fabrics. By 1850, Boston had taken fourth place 
among the cities of the United States, and New 
Orleans dropped to fifth. 

Cause of Loss of Valley's Trade. The open- 
ing of the Erie Canal, 1825, connecting Lake 
Erie, by way of Buffalo, with New York City, 
and of the Ohio Canal, 1832, 
linking the Ohio River to 
Lake Erie, established a 
short, easy, and safe com- 
munication between the Ohio 
Valley and the Atlantic 
coast, and thereby with 
Europe. It was only a 
natural consequence that the 
Ohio Valley trade should 
take this quicker and less 
hazardous course to the New 
York markets and thence to the ta 

T-, • 1 T p n ^ Clipper eiig'iig'ed in sluv 

Europe, mstead oi the long, 
dangerous one to New Or- 
leans and then through the Gulf of Mexico, 
around Florida, and across the Atlantic to 
Europe. The establishment of these canals 
opened up a direct course to the world's centers. 
In 1835, Ohio State sent 86,000 barrels of flour, 
98,000 bushels of wheat, and 2,500,000 staves 
through Buffalo to the Atlantic ports. A second 
factor in alienating the valley trade from New 
Orleans was the danger to navigation on the 
Mississippi and Ohio Elvers; 1824- '27, property 
loss on the two rivers aggregated one and one- 




ably reduced by the Federal Government's 
efforts. The sinking of a steamer in 1837 caused 
the loss of 300 lives; numerous other tragedies 
occurred, giving river navigation ill-fame. 
Again, the cost of running steamboats on these 
rivers was six times as heavy as on the Great 
Lakes. Neither were the mouths of the Missis- 
sippi clear; sand bars continually formed and, ■ 
in this period. Northeast Pass, considered the 
deepest, had a depth of twelve feet. The open- 
ing of railroad communication after 1840 severed 
the last tie that bound the northern valley com- 
merce to New Orleans. 

Three Municipalities. With all good-will, it 
seemed impossible for the Creoles and Amer- 
icans to agree; jealousies, party spirit, language, 
customs, nationality, all militated against ac- 
cord. The strife culminated in 1836, in the 
division of the city into three municipalities: 
old town, "Vieux Carre" formed the first 
municipality; Faubourg Ste. Marie, the second; 
and Faubourg Marig-ny, the third. The gov- 
ernments were distinct and had independent ' 
powers, but there were a mayor and general 
council for the whole city. Faubourg Ste. Marie 
immediately took and held the lead. 

Slavery — Effects. The in- 
stitution of slavery, of its 
very nature, is an obstacle to 
industrial development. The 
African slave labor in and 
about New Orleans was also 
of a most inferior grade. 
Wild men, as were these 
negroes, do not become civil- 
ized and masters of crafts in 
one generation. Slavery 
kept out the class of im- 
migrants that were adepts in 
mechanical and productive 
arts, the people who rapidly 
develop a nation's resources. One-third of the 
increase in population between 1830 and 1840 
was composed of slaves and free persons of 
color; this last class, under the conditions of the 
times, were a heavy burden ; the remaining two- 
thirds of the increase were Irish and Germans 
of the very poorest class. 

Financial Crisis, 1836- '37. The downfall of 
the United States Bank, establishment of mul- 
titudes of poorly capitalized banks, and wild 
specvilation in land, caused a terrible money 



LLULAIT. 

s tRule to Now Oi'leaus. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum 



third millions; these losses were later consider- crisis throughout the United. States. There were 



32 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



few banks in New Orleans; with a little over 
$2,500,000 in their vaults, they had $7,000,000 
in circulation, and were purported to have a 
capital of $37,000,000. Their failure prostrated 
the city. So strong a sentiment against banks 
arose that the Constitutional Convention, then 
in session, provided that no banking corporation 
should be established in Louisiana; thus the 
banking monopoly was given to a few houses 
that bore up under the financial stress and re- 
sumed payment of specie in 1843 with $4,500,000 
in their vaults and $1,250,000 in circulation. The 
city, for the first time in its history, then ex- 
ported over 1,000,000 bales of cotton. 

Railroads. The first railroad was completed 
in New Orleans in 1830; it ran out Elysian 
Fields and connected the city with Milneburg. 
Captain Grant, the builder of the road, was the 
originator of the raised platform; it was not 
until 1858 that it was adopted throughout Eng- 
land and Europe. Later in the thirties there 
were two unsuccessful railroad schemes, namely, 
'the "New Orleans and Nashville" and the 
"Mexican Grulf." The last was to develop the 
waters about Cat Island into a harbor for large 
vessels coming from the East to New Orleans, 
and thus shorten the journey between New York 
and New Orleans; it never got beyond the limits 
of the next parish. In 1837, two railroads were 
planned to join New Orleans to the great central 
railroad system of the United States in the Mis- 
sissippi Valley, and with Texas; the first was to 
stretch nortliHo Jackson, Mississippi ; the second, 
westerly to Opelousas, 
Louisiana. The state as- 
sisted both enteriDrises, 
and by 1855 the first and 
by 1857 the second ex- 
tended eighty miles 
from the city. 

City Expansion. The 
ancient fortifications 
disappeared about 1808. 
The city spread out 
above and below along 
the river bank. New 
streets were cut; they 
were wider than the 
old ones, especially 
those in the American 
quarter, and, after 1820, 
paved with brick or 
iStoiie, The battiire 



being formed by the river in front of the 
Faubourg Ste. Marie, was taken and built 
up for business purposes. Before the eighties, 
the expansion was entirely along the river, fol- 
lowing the line of commerce. The little town 
of Algiers, on the river, opposite the second 
municipality, began to develop its marine work- 
shops. 

Period of Architectural Improvement. Archi- 
tects and builders were busy erecting halls, 
churches, schools, stores, markets, warehouses, 
banks, hotels, and theatres. In 1830, the parish 
prison of stuccoed brick was erected in the rear 
of Beauregard Square; the same year, the vege- 
table division was added to French Market, and 
a little later St. Mary's, Washington, and Poy- 
dras markets were built. In 1835, the new United 
States Barracks, on the city's lower limits, were 
completed and called Jackson Barracks. The 
Charity Hospital was moved from Canal street 
to a building erected at a cost of $150,000, on 
Common street; the old structure became the 
State House. Two extensive cotton presses and 
warehouses were put up, costing, respectively, 
$500,000 and $758,000. A branch of the United 
States mint was established on the site of the 
former Fort St. Charles, corner of Esplanade 
and Peters. Banks' Arcade was built in 1833; 
it was an unusual structure, a glass-roofed court 
in the middle of the St. James Hotel in Maga- 
zine, iTsed for mercantile purposes. Three years 
later the Merchants' Exchange was completed 
in Royal street and a post-office established in 




UNITED STATES MINT. 



-Courtesy Southern Pacific E. 5- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



33 




it. Dakin and Gallier, architects, erected the far- 
famed old St. Charles Hotel in 1837, at a cost of 
$600,000; this firm also built the City Hall, State 
House at Baton Rouge, and Opera House. 
Diagonally opposite the St. Charles, E. 0. 
Pritchard put up the Verandah Hotel at a cost 
of $300,000. The St. Louis Hotel was constructed 
at the same time 
on Toulouse street 
by Depouilly. 
Many churches 
were built; the 
FirstPresbyterian 
Church on Lafa}'- 
ette Square, the 
Carondelet Meth- 
odist Church, cor- 
ner of Carondelet 
and Poydras, 
Christ Church on 
Canal street, and, 
above all, reared 
the lofty and beau- 
tiful tower of St. 
Patrick's Church. 
Mr. James H . 
Caldwell erected 
two theatres; the 

first on Camp street, and, in 1839, the St. Charles 
Theatre at a cost of $350,000. The Commercial, 
Atchafalaya, Canal, and City Banks were built. 
The present City Hall was the Second Munici- 
pality's Town Hall. The United States Govern- 
ment had the present Custom House erected; 
General Beauregard supervised the construction 
of both the Mint and the Cus- 
tom House. One of the towers 
having fallen, the Cathedral 
was renovated in 1850. Six 
years later the Jesuits erected 
their beautiful church in Ba- 
ronne street. Many charitable 
institutions were founded; 
namely, the Poydras Orphan 
Asylum, French Orphan Asy- 
lum, Fireman's Charitable As- 
sociation, Howard Association, 
Stone's Hospital, and Many 
others. 

European Immigration. New Orleans shared 
with New York the influx of European im- 
migrants to western lands; between 1845 and 
1850, they averaged 30,000 per year. Man^ 



JACKSON SQUARE AS IT APPEARED IN 183S 




located in the city; in 1842, the population was 
said to be "largely mixed with Germans." This 
immigration militated against slavery because 
of the superior service rendered by the white 
immigrants. In the decade, 1840- '50, the num- 
ber of slaves decreased by 5,330. 

Mulatto Exodus. The free mulattoes were 
nearly one - third 
as numerous as 
the whites in 1840. 
They were held in 
contempt by all, 
especially by the 
Americans. The 
abolition move- 
ment created an 
antagonistic sen- 
timent towards 
them. The result 
was that during 
the decade more 
than 9,000 left the 
city. No evidence 
has been foimd of 
their ever return- 
ing. Their de- 
parture raised the 
proportion of 
whites in the community from 58 per cent to 
78 per cent. 

City of Lafayette. In 1833, the three subiirbs, 
Lafayette, Livaudais, and Eeligieuses, rmited 
to form the City of Lafayette. The Fourth Dis- 
trict occupies the site of the City of Lafayette. 
Many of the wealthy citizens of New Orleans 
moved into it and built beau- 
tiful homes, large and airy, in 
the midst of gardens and large 
trees. They settled to the rear 
of the town, while the im- 
migrant German and Irish la- 
borers gathered along the river 
front. In 1850, the population 
of Lafayette consisted of 12,319 
whites and 1,871 colored. 

Modern Improvements. Gas 
was first used in 1833 (Chap. 
XVI.). Water Supply and 
Drainage, (Chap. IIL). Tele- 
graph, (Chap. v.). Eailway, (Chap. V.). Paving, 
(Chap. XVL). 

Finances. The separation of the city into three 
municipalities does not seem to have improved its 



rtesy La. State Museum. 



STKEET liAILROAD CAR IV ISoS. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum 



34 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



finances. Aggregate debt in 1852 was $7,700,000. from tlie interior were A^alued at $45,700,000; 

Assessments and taxation were unsatisfactory, tliey increased rapidly, and in 1851 were esti- 

Modern bond systems were not used. Tlie people mated to be worth $107,000,000. The tobacco 

demanded a change in the government of the city, trade was given new life. One-tenth of the 






'XX < 



m^i 



1 



■" I -^^-i ,-j^y>^' 






mp^'>' 



■^ 






^ 



MAP OF LOUISIANA, 1849. 



-Courtesy La. State Museum. 



Union of Municipalities. Tlie result was the arrivals by sea were steamships. This trade 

union of the three mimicipalities and the City was carried on, despite the danger facing ves- 

of Lafayette into one city. The city was gov- sels entering the river. In the space of a few 

erned by a mayor and two chambers, aldermen weeks in 1852, foi*ty ships went agTound at the 



and assistant alder- 
men; there were a 
comptroller, sur- 
veyor, and street 
commissioner. By 
April 1, 1853, this 
government had 
paid off over $4,000,- 
000 of the city debt. 
The rotunda of the 
St. Charles Hotel 
took the position 
formerly held by the 
St. Louis Bourse and 
became the city's 
unofficial guild hall. 
Commerce, 1840- 
'60. In 1842, receipts. 




CANAL STREET, ROYAL TO BOIJEBGN, 1846. 

-^Oourtesy La. State Museum. 



entrance to the river. 
The terrible yellow 
fever scourges of 
1853- '55 reduced the 
volume of the trade. 
This was regained, 
?nd a high -water 
mark reached in 
1857. The financial 
crash followed. 
Fifty-eight mercan- 
tile houses failed, 
and in the course of 
the next year forty- 
five more. But the 
failures in New Or- 
leans were as noth- 
ing to those in New 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



35 



York, which recorded 1,321, and iu Boston, 376. 
Imports and exports were reduced $36,000,000. 

Obstacles to Progress. There were three 
great obstacles to progress, namely, inundations, 
epidemics, and the dangerous condition of the 




ORLEANS ALLEY. 



Ilirin I\HiHc U. U. 



entrance to the river resulting from shallow 
water and the formation of sand bars, (Chap. 
I.); Epidemics, (Chap. IV.); Condition of 
entrance to river, (Chap. VI.). 

Education. The Public School system was 
established in 1841; then occurred a period of 
Library development, (Chap. XII.). 

Homes. The homes of this period varied 
from the slave's cabin to the palatial mansion 
in the Vieux Carre The homes of the Amer- 
icans provided the comforts afforded by the 
times, but were devoid of luxuries. French 
mirrors, beautiful carpets, handsome furniture, 
fine china and silverware were found in wealthy 
houses in the old city. The Americans, more 
frugal than their neighbors, were more engrossed 
iu making money than in money spending. The 



houses were lighted of an evening by candles and 
oil lamps; the former were often supported in 
handsome candelabra (girondoles) trimmed with 
scintillating crystal drops; the oil lamp was ever 
on the center table. Young ladies dressed by the 
light of candles held by the slave girls at differ- 
ent needful angles. The furniture was covered 
with haircloth meant to withstand the ravages of 
time: Of all famed pieces of furniture of those 
days, the most noted is the four-posted bed, 
sometimes piled so high with mattresses as to- 
call for a miniature step-ladder with which to 
scale its sides ; the ' ' tester, ' ' to quote Mrs. Ripley, 
"was ornamented with a wall paper stuff, a 
wreath of imposisble red and yellow roses, big 
as saucers, stamped on it, and four strands of 
same roses reaching to the four corners of the 
monsti'osity"; some "swells had testers covered 
Avith silk." Open fireplaces with a crane served 
in the kitchen until about 1840, when stoves 
began to be. used. The households were very 
busy; all sewing was done at home; there were 
no ready-to-wear garments then; even the men's 
shirts, elaborately tucked and beruffled affairs, 
collars and cuffs, were made at home. The cast- 




TYPIOAL HOMES IN THE VIEUX C iRRl ERI CILD DURING 

THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTIi CENTURY. 

Note the handsome wroiight-iron balustrades. 

off clothes of the larger were turned out as 
the Sunday best of the smaller members of the 
family. 

Hotels. An important feature of New Or- 
leans in ante-bellum days, was the brilliant hotel 



36 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



life. The habit of the planters in bringing their one of the great political centers outside Wash- 
families to the city for the festivities of the ington. The Okl St. Louis, like the Old St. 



winter season developed 
this mode of living. This 
life centered about the 
St. Charles Hotel, in the 
Second Municipality, 
and in the St. Louis 
Hotel in the old town. 
These were the first of 
the great American 
hotels and became mer- 
cantile and political, as 
well as social centers. 
Noted travelers praised 
the St. Charles enthusi- 
astically. Oakey Hall 
wrote of it: "Put the St. 
Charles down in St. 
Petersburg, and you 
would think it a palace; 
in Boston, and ten to 
one you would christen 
it a college; in London, 
and it would marvel- 
ously remind you of an 
exchange ; in Ne w Or- 
leans, it is all three." 
Lady Wortley, an En- 
glish litterateur and 
traveler, declared she 
had not found a finer 
piece of architecture in 



'ILlliHIIMm 


1 








raY^ N 


^M) 




1 




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5^3 


1 




1 


HL 


1 


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1 




B 


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1 






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1 



Charles, was grander 
than its successor; 
Canova, the son of the 
great Italian sculptor, 
had decorated the 
splendid rotunda. It 
was burned ten years 
before its rival, and 
was immediately re- 
built. Society gathered 
here for some of the 
most famed balls in its 
histoiy. Here, in the 
winterof 1842-'43, was 
given the wonderful 
subscription ball in 
honor of Henry Clay, 
wlien 200 guests were 
entertained at a ball 
and supper at a cost of 
$20,000. 

Lake Resorts. Three 
lake resorts were 
opened up during this 
period, namely, Milne- 
burg, Spanish Fort, 
and one a few miles 
above Wes.t End. 
Hotels and restaurants 
flourished at all. Span- 
ish Fort occupied the 



COURTYARD IN VIEUX CARRE. 

—Courtesy Southern Pacific R. R. 

the new world than its wonderful dome and site of the old fort erected by Governor Caron- 
Corinthian portico. The St. Charles was de- delet for the defense of the entrance to Bayou 

stroyed by fire in St. John. It was at Milneburg that 

1851, but" imme- I friends and admirers of the great En- 

diately rebuilt, K^ glish noveUst, "William Makepeace 

though on a «^^V. Thackeray, entertained him at a sump- 

lesser scale; the l«i^ tuous dinner, 

famed dome, 
which was sec- 
ond in size in the 
United States 
only to that of 
capitol in Wash- 
ington, was omit- 
ted from the new 
edifice. This ro- 
tunda had been 
the great center 
of the city's life. 
Parlor P. was 





FIRST ST. CHARLES HOTEL. 

: — Courtesy La. State Museum. 



SECOND ST. LOUIS HOTEL, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



37 



Clubs. Club life began in New Orleans in 1832 
with the organization of the Elkin Club. Its head- 
quarters were in a hostelry at the mouth of Bayou 
St. John, which had been formerly conducted 

by one 
JT-^ ^~-- ~ ,,.,.......-., ii^Yvej 

LL- ^ -. i 1^: 1 k i n , 

hence its 
11 a m e . 
This club 
numbered 
among its 
members 
the most 



p r m - 
inent cit- 
i z e n s . 
Tlie finan- 
cial crisis 
of 1837 
caused its 
abandon- 
ment in 
1838. It 
was suc- 
ceeded by 
the "Old 
Pelican 
Club," 
a r i s t - 
From this 




OLD ST. OHABLES THEATRE. 

— Courtesy La. State Museun 



cratic and narrow in the extreme 
chib the young men were debarred, so tliey 
formed the Orleans Club, about the most brilliant 
of the time. The club 
13urchased Mr. Robb's 
home in St. Charles 
street for $40,000. Its 
membership reached 
400 and included plant- 
ers, merchants, law- 
yers, doctors, poli- 
ticians, newspaper 
men, race horse follow- 
ers, etc. The great 
races were then being 
conducted at "Old 
Metairie," and it is 
stated that at the 
famous interstate race, 
when Lecompte, the 
Mississippi horse, beat 
Lexington of Ken- 
tucky, the betting be- 



came high, and one person won $20,000, to the 
loss of the many others. 

Steamboats on the River. As travel to New 
Orleans was possible only by water, and that 
required a fair amount of time, steamboats be- 
came commodioiTs, elegant. They were large 
and airy and had huge saloons extending their 
full length, with highly polished floors for the 
enjoyment of the dancers. The cuisines were of 
the best; the skill 
of the chefs being 
widely known. Vis- 
itors to New Or- 
leans, when i^ossible, 
boarded on the boat 
on which they had 
made the trip, in- 
stead of taking up a 
residence in the city; 
especially was this 
true at carnival time. 
The building of the 
railroads drove the 
palatial river boats 
out of existence. 

Theatres. The Or- 
leans Theatre, on Orleans, between Royal and 
Bourbon streets, was the home of the opera. It 
was built by subscription in 1817; John Mc- 
Donogh having acquired it later on, willed it to 
the City of Baltimore. It was destroyed by 'fire 
in 1868, but the famous ballroom that adjoined 
it was saved and used as a criminal courtroom 




JAMES H CALDWELL, 
bronze bust in Louisiana State 
Museum. 
— Courtesy La. State Museum. 




FKENCH OPEBA HODSE, EEECTEO IN 1S59. 



— Courtesy Southern Pacitic R. R. 



3g 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOlC 



from 1872 imtil the court's removal to St. Pat- 
rick's Hall. Opera of the first order was sung 
to large and appreciative audiences. Not to 
have a bos or seats at the opera was a cause of 
social ostricism. Operas were given on four 
nights in the week, the fashionable evenings 
being Tuesday and Saturday; nights when there 
was no opera, the drama held the boards. Ludlow 
introduced English plays the very first year of 
the theatre's existence, but English drama did 
not flourish until 1820, when James H. Cald- 
well took charge of the St. Philip street theatre. 
Caldwell was the personal exponent of the most 
progressive spirit of the city; he was an En- 
glishman of handsome and charming manners, 
brilliant, clever, able; in England he had mingled 
with such noted actors as the Kembels, Keans, 
Cooper, Booth, and the like. He organized a 
theatrical troupe of known talent (Booth, 
Barret, Eussel among the members), and came 
to the United States. They tried Richmond, Vir- 
ginia, then came to New Orleans. Booth was 
the leading actor and-, with Mrs. Caldwell, 
played in French as well as in English. In 182.3, 
Caldwell erected a theatre in Camp street, able 
to accommodate 1,100 people; to this, he moved 
his troupe from the Orleans Theatre. He met 
with great financial and dramatic success. In 
1824, he lighted this theatre by means of gas. 
Edwin Forrest began his great theatrical career 
in the Camp street theatre. In 1835, Caldwell 
had the St. Charles Theatre built, at a cost of 
$350,000; it was then the largest in the United 
States; the building was noted for the wonder- 
ful chandelier, over two tons in weight and sup- 
2:)orting two hundred gas-lights, that was sus- 
pended from the center of the building. Four 
years later, the Camp street theatre was closed. 
Mr. Caldwell was not only a promoter of theatres 
and the highest fojm of English drama, but also 
of other city improvements; he was the founder 
of the St. Charles Hotel and the gas works. 

3. WAR TIME AND RECONSTRUCTION 
DAYS. 

, Outbreak of Civil War. The Republican 
party had. won in the presidential election, and 
tl^^upoji South Carolina passed an ordinance 
of secession. Casting 'her lot with the other 
Southern States, Louisiana seceded January 26, 
1861, and sent her ablest sons to the front. 



New Orleans as a Strategic Point. New Or- 
leans sent over 5,000 of her best soldiers to the 
defense of the northern line of the Confederacy. 
The southern government seemed oblivious of 
the city's location; not so, the Washington 
authorities. Two expeditions were set afoot for 
securing the Mississippi to the Union; one under 
Grant, to descend the river, the other under 
Farragut and Butler to ascend it. 

Capture of New Orleans, April 25, 1862. 
Grant was slowly but surely pushing his way 
down stream. Farragut, with a fleet of forty- 
three vessels, was entering the river from the 
Gulf. In vain, General Lovell asked for assist- 
ance; none could be given him. He did his best 
to obstruct the passage of the Federal fleet by 
having cables put across the river below the city; 
old vessels were linked together and set ablaze. 
Farragut succeeded in passing the two poorly 
armed forts and making his way up to the city, 
which, because of the high water, lie was able 
to sweep with his gams. General Lovell, recog- 
nizing the nselessness of fighting, retreated. The 
city front blazed with the fire from the thousands 
of bales of cotton and hogsheads of sugar and 
molasses which the citizens burned to prevent 
the Federals obtaining. 

Military Rule. General Butler, with 15,000 
soldiers, took charge of the city on May 1, 1862. 
Mayor Monroe was put out of office and a mili- 
tary commandant appointed in his place. The City 
Council was replaced by the Bureau of Finance 
and the Bureau of Streets and Landings. Butler's 
rule in New Orleans has ever been execrated by 
the people of the city and condemned by the out- 
side world as disgraceful ; he was removed before 
the year expired. The city's commerce had been 
reduced by the war to a diminutive trade in war 
supplies with the neighboring territory. Cotton 
sold in 1864 at $1.63 per pound, and sugar at 26 
cents. The end of the war caused the immediate 
renewal of commercial intercourse with other 
])arts. 

Reconstruction Acts. The Republican Con- 
gress decided that the Southern States should be 
regarded as conquered territory, reconstructed, 
and readmitted into the Union. First of all, the 
new freemen were to be secured in the enjoy- 
ment of their citizenship and suffrage. The white 
men of the state were virtually deprived of the 
use of the ballot by all the restrictions placed 
upon its exercise. 

Misrule. As is the case after most wars, a 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



39 



host of undesirable individuals, seeking to make 
fortunes by easy means, followed in the wake 
of the victorious northern army. They became 
known as "carpetbaggers," as the southern 
people of a like class received the appellation of 
"scalawags." In New Orleans, they 
became the) leaders of the voting- 
populace — largely composed of the 
.newly enfranchised negroes — and thus 
gained control of the government. The 
city's property was literally stolen. By 
1872, the extravagant expenditures 
had reached $6,961,381 and the bonded 
debt $21,000,000, on some of which ten 
per cent interest was being paid. The 
city issued an enormous amount of 
valueless "city currency" with which 
the officers and Public School teachers 
were paid. Taxation rose to 2^%oo per 
cent in 1871. This government main- 
tained itself by means of the "Metro- 
politan Police," especially organized 
for the protection of the officials, and 
a rigid system of espionage conducted against 
those opposed to their rule. 

Change in Government. In 1870, the city 
government was changed. Under the new 
system, there was a mayor, with a salary of 
$7,500 per year, and seven administrators, 
with salaries of $6,000; these administra- 
tors each had 
charge of one 
department; 
the depart- 
ments were 
Finance, Ac- 
counts, Com- 
merce, Im- 
provements, 
Water Works 
and Public 
Buildings, As- 
sessments, and 
Police. The 
administrators 
were appoint- 
ed by the gov- 
ernor. 

September 14, 1874. The citizens of New 
Orleans had formed the "White League" for 
the expulsion of the carpetbag government. To 
frustrate their plans, an order was issued that 
forbade a citizen to keep a firearm even in his 




MONTTiMENT IN MEMORY OF 
THE MEMBERS OP THE 
WHITE LEAGUE, 
Who Fell in Conflict Sep- 
tember 14, 1874. 




HARBOR OF NEW ORLEANS, IS 



home. It was learnt that a ship with a cargo of 
ammunition for the League was to arrive on 
September 14tli. The Metropolitan Police formed 
at the foot of Canal street and the levee with 
mounted cannon to prevent the citizens from 
reaching the vessel. The "White 
League" moved out Poydras street to 
the levee until they faced the Metro- 
politans. A skirmish followed, witli 
the result that the Metropolitans fled, 
suffering the loss of many of their 
members. The "White League" lost 
sixteen. In memory of the citizens 
who lost their lives, a monument was 
erected at the foot of Canal street, 
where had stood the Metropolitans' 
cannon. The "White League," by 
gradual successes, finally restored the 
citizens to the control of their city. 

Improvements. It was impossible 
for any progress to be made under the 
prevailing conditions. The city under- 
took the operation of the water works 
in 1869. Paving the streets with wood was tried 
and, as it proved a failure, abandoned. A drain- 
age system was projected in 1871, but be- 
cause of its costliness and the ruinous con- 
dition of the city's finances, was shortly after 
given up. The Board of New Orleans Park 
Commissioners bought the Upper City Park, 

now Audubon 
Park, in 1871, 
at a cost of 
$80,000. 

Population. 
From 168,755 
in 1860, the 
population in- 
creased to 
191,418 in 
1870. This was 
due in great 
measure to the 
incoming of 
freed negroes 
from the coun- 
try districts. 
Expansion of 
City Limits. In 1870, two districts, the Fifth 
and Sixth, were added by the annexation of the 
town of Algiers, on the opposite side of the 
river, and of Jefferson City, a town adjoining 
the Fourth District, the former City of La- 



— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



40 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



fayette. By the addition of Carrollton, in 1874, 
as the Seventh Municipal District, the city at- 
tained its present Umits. 

4. MODERN PERIOD, 1874-1914. 

Premium Bonds. With the victory of the 
Eeg-ular Democracy in electing Charles Leeds as 
mayor in 1874, the carpetbag government may 
he said to have been ended. The bonded debts 
reached $20,000,000 in 1875. Real estate had de- 
preciated; business in general had greatly de- 
clined. A crisis had come in the city's affairs. 
Edward Pilsbnry was administrator of the De- 
]iartment of Finance; he formed the Premium 
Bond plan ; by this, all the city bonds were funded 
into bonds of $20, bearing five per cent interest 
when drawn by lots. By this system the annual 
interest was reduced from $1,416,000 to $307,500. 
Pilsbury succeeded Leeds as Mayor in 1876. 

Board of Liquidation. In 1880, the Legisla- 
ture created a board to see to the liquidation, 
reduction, and consolidation of the city's debt. 
Thus the payment of the city debt was taken out 
of the hands of the city officials. 

Improvements Before the Exposition. The 
telephone was in- 
troduced in 1876, 
and two years 
later the first line 
was constructed. 
A little later, the 
various lines in 
operation were 
joined into the 

New Orleans Telephone Exchange for the pur- 
pose of intercommunication. The Carrollton 
Railroad was franchised and the New Orleans 
and Pacific Railroad was granted the batture in 
front of the park. With money derived from 
the gambling houses of the city, an almshouse 
was erected at a cost of $100,000 and named in 
honor of Mayor Shakespeare. The greatest of 
all improvements was that at the mouth of the 
river. In 1882, Captain Eads completed the 
jetties in South Pass, Ijegun June 2, 1875; from 
seventeen and a half feet, the water on the bar 
was deepened to thirty feet. The benefits to 
commerce were innumerable. According to the 
United States census of 1880, the population had 
increased to 217,140. 

Return to Aldermanic Government. The 
people became dissatisfied with the Bureau 



WBSi^^Mml^^^fi 


-t " ,; 






M 


9 


S 



CENTRAL BUILDING, COTTON 



system, said it was too expensive, and demanded 
a return to the old aldermanic form of govern- 
ment. So, in 1882, the Legislature passed an 
act changing the city's form of government. 
Under the new charter, the executive officers 
were Mayor, Treasurer, ComiDtroller, Commis- 
sioner of Police, and Commissioner of Public 
Works, each receiving a salary of $3,500. The 
Council was composed of thirty members. 

Cotton Oenteimial Exposition, 1884. An ex- 
position was held in New Orleans to celebrate 
the hundredth anniversary of the first exporta- 
tion of cotton; in 1784, a few bags had been sent 
to England from Charleston, South Carolina. 
The Fair grounds were in the Sixth District and 
comprised seventy-five acres. The main building 
was larger than any that had yet been erected at 
an exposition. The only remnant left of the numer- 
ous structures is Horticultural Hall in Audubon 
Park, which is only part of a building, portions 
of it having been destroyed by storms. This hall 
is not kept up as well as in former times because 
of laclv* of funds. The exposition was one of the 
causes of the opening of the Sixth District. 

Principal Improvements Before 1900. Elec- 
tricity for street lighting was introduced in 1884; 

Royal street from 
Canal to Esplan- 
ade was thus 
lighted. Two years 
later electricity 
supplemented gas 
for street lighting. 
CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION. St. Charlcs street 

-Courtesy La. State Museum, ^^g payed with 

asphalt in 1884. Four years later, the erection 
of the present Criminal Court House and parish 
prison was begun; St. Patrick's Hall, the former 
domicile of the Criminal Court, was some years 
later made to serve as a Public Library by the 
removal of the Fisk and Public Librai'ies to it. 
The Orleans Levee Board was organized, as well 
as the Public Library Board. A paid Fire De- 
partment replaced the Volunteer Corps in 1891. 
In this year, the New Orleans and Louisiana 
Construction and Improvement Company under- 
took the management of the city wharves for ten 
years, but their excessive charges caused the 
state to purchase their rights in 1896; the Legis- 
lature created a Board of Commissioners of the 
Port of New Orleans to manage the wharves. 
Two railroads received grants along the river 
front, the Illinois Central and the Louisville and 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK: 



41 



Nashville; the former received a grant in the 
Sixth District and soon erected the Stuyvesant 
Docks and large grain elevators; the latter was 
allowed to run their tracks on the levee helow 
Canal street and build a depot at the foot of 
Canal. In return for these privileges, the cor- 
porations had to maintain the levees within the 
limits of their grants. The present drainage 
system was begun in 1899 and put into operation 
in 1900, in which year, also, an ordinance was 
passed providing for a City Public Belt Eail- 
road. The neutral ground on Canal street was 
paved. In the centennial year, the city took an- 
other step toward municipal ownership of public 
works by taking over the control of the markets. 

Change in Aldermanic Form of Government. 
The year 1896 saw the city's government 
changed again. The Mayor's powers were in- 
creased; he had the appointment of the Com- 
missioners of Public Works and of Police and 
Public Buildings, the City Attorney and the 
City Engineer; his salary was raised to $6,000. 
The Treasurer and Comptroller were, like the 
Mayor, elected by the people. The Council con- 
sisted of seventeen members, elected by the 
people and were paid twenty dollars per month. 

Commerce and Manufactures Since 1900. For 



the late development of commerce and manu- 
factures, see Chapters VI. and VIII. 

Expected Benefits to Be Derived from the 
Opening of the Panama Canal. New Orleans 
expects a vast improvement in commerce as a 
result of the opening of the Panama Canal. Be- 
cause of her location at the mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi, practically on the Gulf of Mexico, 
twenty degrees further north, ten further west 
than the Canal Zone, it is the common opinion 
that the great bulk of the South American 
trade, especially that of the Pacific coast, will 
be brought to the great New Orleans port. Chap- 
ter VII. 

Present Educational Conditions. 
See Chapter XII. 

Population. The city's population in 1900 
was 287,104, and increased during the decade to 
.339,075; it is now estimated at between 360,000 
and 370,000. New Orleans is very cosmopolitan; 
according to the last United States census, every 
country in Europe is represented and several 
in Asia, Africa, South America, and Central 
America. 

Public Works. The city's present policy 








,=JITHH 




OLIl STYLE STKAMBOAT LANDING. 



A^ 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOlC 



tends towards municipal ownership of public 
works, so as to operate them at cost for the 
benefit of the citizens. For light and paving, 
see Chapter XVI.; for water and drainage, see 
Chapter ni. 

Architectural Development. During the last 
two decades, the city has assumed her modern 
appearance. It has been a period of building. 
All the large structures have been erected 
during this time. The sky-scraper, in modified 
form,' has invaded the city; there are the Maison 
Blanche, Grunewald Hotel, Monteleone Hotel, 
Whitney-Central, Canal Bank buildings. Steel 
frames are now used in the construction of large 
buildings. The United States Grovermnent has 
erected - in Camp street the magnificent, new 
Post Office. The state erected the elegant, 
marble-faced Court House in Eoyal street. 
Handsome schools and splendid factories are 
continually being built. 

Realty Improvements. The Cotton Centen- 
nial Exposition inaugurated the development of 
the city's real estate by drawing attention to the 
desirability of sites in the Sixth District ; exten- 
sion of the street car system, street lighting, 
and paving have united to open up the outlying 
sections. Modern development was then first 
begun in the Sixth and Seventh Districts. The 



Second District then came to the front; all the 
land between the cemeteries and the lake was 
cleared, drained, paved, and lighted; trees and 
palms were planted along the streets; and now 
Lakeview is a rapidly growing and pretty 
suburb. Extending northeast from City Park, 
really a continuation of Metairie Ridge, is Gen- 
tilly Terrace, one of the most beautiful of New 
Orleans' many garden spots. The tract of land 
beyond Gentilly and along Lake Pontchartrain 
to slightly east of Little Woods, is being de- 
veloped by the New Orleans Lake Shore Land 
Company ; between this and Chef Menteur is the 
Miehaud Tract, which is being improved in like 
manner, by drainage and splendid shell roads, 
so that lots now sell at the former jorice of acres. 
The United States Government, by the erection 
of the Naval and Immigration Stations, has con- 
tributed to the development of the Fifth Dis- 
trict. A great plan is now in progTess for the 
improvement of the Jefferson-Plaquemines 
Drainage District; 11,500 acres are within the 
limits of Algiers. Bayou Barataria is the natural 
drain of this district, and, with Harvey Canal, 
almost makes an island out of the land in the 
river's bend. A dam has been constructed across 
Bayou Barataria, where it is joined by Harvey 
Canal; huge pumps erected at this point 




SHIPS AT THE WHARVES. 



-Courtesy ot Board of Port Commissioners. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



43 



are to lift the water across the dam into 
the bayou. New Orleaniaiis may enjoy 
farm life on the banks 
of Bayou Barataria and 
yet be within twenty or 
thirty minutes of the 
heart of the business sec- 
tion, hj way of the road 
alongside the New Or- 
leans Southern and Grand 
Isle Bailroad, the Jack- 
son avenue ferry and car 
line, Metairie Eidge is a 
delightful suburb out- 
side the city limits, in 
Jefferson Parish. 

Commission Form of 
Government. In 1912, by 
special act of the Legis- 
lature, the city's gov- 
ernment was changed, a 
modified form of the 
Commission Plan of 
Municipal Grovernment 
being adopted. See 
Chapter XV. 

Present Financial Condition of the City. The 
city's bonded debt increased to $37,937,568.50 



in 1913. This increase is due to the city's under- 
taking the operation of her own sewerage and 
water system and the 
Public Belt Railroad ; the 
former added between 
$16,000,000 and $17,000,- 
000 and the latter $2,- 
000,000 or $3,000,000 to 
the city's debt. The tax 
receipts for 1913 were 
$4,904,602.26 on an as- 
sessment of $245,492,194. 
Centennial Celebra- 
tion of the Battle of New 
Orleans. January 8, 
1915, the hundredth an- 
niversary of the Battle 
of New Orleans, marked 
also a century of peace 
between the two great 
English-speaking na- 
tions of the world. Great 
Britain and the United 
States. "With character- 
istic hospitality, New 
Orleans entertained rep- 
resentatives of King George V. of England, 
tlie Canadian Government, and distinguished 




MAISON BLANCHE BUILDING. 




JACKSON SQUARE AS IT IS TO-DAY. 



-Courtesy La. State Museum. 



44 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK: 



Americans. The walls of the old Cathedral re- 
echoed the chant of the solemn Te Deum as they 
had one hundred years before, military and 
civic parades recalled the spirit of Jackson and 



his followers, and the ladies of 1815, as well 
as the heroes of battle, seemed to live again in 
the "tableaux vivants," presented as a fitting 
climax to the celebration. 



TOPICS: Section 1, French Domination: I. Louisiana 
before 1718, II. Proprietorship of the Company of the West, 

III. New Orleans, 17.S1-1763; Section 2, Spanish Domination; 

I, Manifestation of the Spirit of Liberty, II. Establishment 
of Spanish Control, III. Spanish Development of New Orleans, 

IV. New Orleans in 1800; Section 3, Transition Period: Sec- 
tion 4, American Domination: I. New Orleans, 1803- '15, 

II. From 1815- '60, III. War Time and Reconstruction Days, 
IV. Modern Period. 

REFERENCES: Bossu, Travels through that part of 
North America formerly called Louisiana (translated by John 
Eeinhold Forster) ; Charlevoix, History and General Descrip- 
tion of New France (edited by John Gilmary Shea) ; La 
Harpe, Journal Historique de I'Establissement des Francais 
a la Louisiane, Nouvelle-Orleans, 1831; Le Page du Pratz, 
Histoire de la Louisiane; Eeuben Gold Thwaites, The Jesuit 
Relations and Allied Documents; King and Ficklen, Stories 
from Louisiana History; Claiborne, "Mississippi"; Bunner, 



History of Louisiana, 1841; Early Voyages Uj> and Down the 
Mississippi, Albany, 1861; B. "M. Norman, New Orleans and 
Environs, 1844; A. Oakey Hall, The Manhattaner in New 
Orleans, 1851; Jewell's Crescent City, 1873; Waring and 
Cable, History and Present Conditions of New Orleans, 1880; 
Guide and Sketch Book to New Orleans, 1885; Andrew Mor- 
rison, New Orleans and the New South; F. X. Martin, History 
of Louisiana; Phelps, Louisiana; Charles Ga3'arre, History of 
Louisiana; Alcee Fortier, History of Louisiana; Walter 
Fleming, Documentary Historj' of Reconstruction, etc.; The 
South in the Building of the Nation; Rightor (editor), Stand- 
ard History of New Orleans; T. W. Campbell, Manual of the 
City of New Orleans, 1900; Grace King, New Orleans — The 
Place and the People; Eliza Ripley, Social Life in Old New 
Orleans; Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society; 
De Bow's Review, 1846- '59 and 1867 to '68; Stanley C. 
Arthur, The Battle of New Orleans, published by the Lou- 
isiana Historical Society; New Orleans Directories; News- 
paper files of the Bee, Picayune, an<l Times-Democrat. 



MAYORS OF NEW ORLEANS. 



1803- 
1804- 
1805- 
1807- 
1812- 
1815- 
1820- 
1828- 
1838- 
1840- 
1844- 
1846- 
1854- 
1856- 



-Etienne Bore 
-James Bitot 
-John Watkins 
-Joseph Mather 
-Nicholas Girod 
-Aug. McCarthy 
-.T. Rouffignae 
-Dennis Prieur 
-Charles Genois 
-Wm. Freret 
-Edgar Montegut 
-A. D. Crossman 
-John L. Lewis 
-C. M. Waterman 



18.58— 

1860— 

May, 

July, 

Aug., 

Sept., 

Nov., 

July, 

May, 

March 

June, 

.1865— 

1866— 



Gerard Stith 

John T. Monroe 
1862— G. F. She]jlev 
1862— G. Weitzel 
1862— J. H. French 
1862— H. C. Deming 
1862— J. F. Miller 
1864— Stephen Hoyt 
1865— Hugh Kennedy 

, 1865— S. M. Quincy 
1865— Glendy Burke 

■Hugh Kennedy 

John T. Monroe 

E. Heath 



1868— J. R. Conway 
1870— B. P. Flanders 
1872— L. A. Wiltz 
1874— C. J. Leeds 
1876- Edward Pilsbury 
1878—1. W. Patton 
1880 — Jos. A. Shakespeare 
1882— W. J. Behan 
1884— J. V. Guillotte 
1888 — -Jos. A. Shakespeare 
1892 — John Fitzpatrick 
1896— W. C. Flower 
1900 — Paul Capdevielle 
1904 — Martin Behrman 




PANORAMA OF t'OMMUliCTAL SECTION, VIEWliD FUOM TOP OF CITY HAXL. 



CHAPTER III. 



Drainage — Sewerage — Filter Plant. 



In the past, one of the greatest factors in 
preventing the growth and prosperity of New 
Orleans has heen its reputation for unsanitary 
conditions. Sanitary improvements are of vital 
importance in progress, and the three great 
systems of sewerage, water, and drainage have 
helped New Orleans in the race for civic 
advancement. 

New Orleans' Problem. In the construction 
of these works. New Orleans, owing to the flat 
surface, faced its greatest mimicipal problem. 
High water in the river is above the highest 
land in the city. The natural drainage is away 
from the banks of the river, and generally to- 
wards the lakes to the north. The level of Lake 
Pontchartrain is the level of the sea, but the 
accumalation of waters along its south shores, 
owing to the influence of continued north and 
northeast winds, often reached several feet 
above that level. Without artificial aid. New 
Orleans would always be flooded by the rains 
falling upon it and running to it from the river 
slope, and also by the high lake tides backing 
into the low part of the inhabited area. 

Early Attempts at Drainage. In the early 
colonial days. Governor Perrier found it nec- 
essary to construct a levee in front of the city. 
Some attempts at drainage were made by the 
governors, Vaudreuil and Carondelet. The 
Carondelet Canal, (Old Basin) after its com- 
pletion to the Bayou St. John, drained a great 
part of the old city limits. • By 1838, a natural 
drain in the rear of the Second Municipality 
had been broadened and deepened into the Mel- 
pomene Canal, giving some relief to the then 
new portion of the city. From 1871-73, consid- 
ex-able work was done in the excavation of 
drainage canals. In 1880, the city depended for 
its drainage upon a rude form of pumping 
machines similar to those used in Holland. 
These machines were solely for the purpose of 



removing surface water from the streets and the 
house lots. The gutters were deep channels 
from two to three feet wide, but were more or 
less filled with tidal water from the Lakes and 
helped little in the drainage. By 1895, enough 
construction work had been carried out by pri- 
vate drainage companies to demonstrate the 
practicability and the cost of drainage and 
sewerage. 

Inception of the Present Development in 
Drainage and Sewerage Systems. It was not 
until 1895, that the city took upon itself to de- 
sign an effective drainage system. Construc- 
tion work was begun in 1897 but no adequate 
financial provision had been made to complete 
it. The people of the city were beginning to be- 
lieve that they must have a sewerage and a 
water works system as well as drainage. This 
sentiment grew because the epidemics of 1897, 
1898 and 1899 were vital in their effect on trade 
and growth. Finally, in 1899, after a campaign 
in which prominent men took an active part, 
and women's organizations did a vast amount 
of educational work, a law was passed provid- 
ing for a bond issue. Property holders voted 
for a tax to meet the payment of these bonds. 
This law also created a board for the execution 
and the subsequent management of the three 
systems. 

Effects of Improved Drainage. About 1900, 
the work had proceeded far enough in the con- 
struction of a main drainage system, to remove 
as rapidly as it fell a rainfall of moderate in- 
tensity; thus preventing the supersaturation of 
the soil and giving it a chance to dry out. 
Lands before worthless became at once avail- 
able for agricultural or city development. Mos- 
quitoes decreased, and gutters — if only cleaned 
out — drained to their bottoms. The death rate 
dropped from 27.2 per 1,000 to 22 per 1,000. 
The area now drained is from the Mississippi 



46 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



Eiver to Lake Pontchartrain, and from the 
upper to the lower Protection Levee. The 
drainage of New Orleans has convinced the 
world that the millions of acres of marsh land 
surrounding the city, can easily be reclaimed 
and put under cultivation. 

The Capacity of the Drainage System. The 
drainage system consists of about fifty miles of 
main low level canals, from which the water is 
pumped; and of twenty miles of high level out- 
fall canals into which the water is pumped. The 
latter discharged into the Lake. The system is 
constructed and operated so as to produce 
artificially the necessary slope. Seven great 
pumping stations cause the water to flow into 
and through the canals. "When the additional 
pumps which are now being constructed arc 
completed, the total drainage capacity will be 
over 7,000,000,000 gallons per day. At present, 
the final discharge is into Lake Pontchartrain. 
Ultimately, all dry weather and small storm 
flow is to go into Lake Borgne, and only the 
flow from great storms into Lake Pontchar- 
train. 

Reasons for Separating the Sewerage and 
Drainage. It was considered undesirable to dis- 
charge the sewerage of the city into tidal or 



Lake waters. A small stream of sewerage in 
tlie great drainage canal would not move rapidly 
enough to reach the outlets without fennenta- 
tion, which would cause objectionable condi- 
tions in the drains. Owing to the gi*eat amount 
of work required and the cost, the construction 
of one system of sewerage and drainage would 
have taken many years. It was desired within 
the shortest possible time to sewer the five hun- 
dred miles of streets. 

Operation of the Sewerage System. In order 
to accomplisli the desired results, a system of 
sewers was designed com^josed of main, sub- 
main, and lateral sewers. These lead to nine sep- 
arate pumping stations with good slopes of falls 
from the higher end of the sewers to the pump- 
ing stations. The largest portion of the sewers 
drain directly by gravity to the principal pump- 
ing station. Remote ones drain to other pump- 
ing stations, and some of the sewage passes 
through two pumping stations before it reaches 
the principal station, from which it is dis- 
charged into the river. Six of the intermediate 
lift stations are operated by electricity from the 
main station, automatically starting and stop- 
jnng their pumps as the sewage flows into them. 
These stations raise the sewage from a low level 




MAIN WATERWORKS PUMPING STATION AND DRAINAGE POWER HOUSE NO. 



-Courtesy N. 0. S. & W. Board. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



47 



sewer on the suction side to a higher level sewer 
on the discharge side; and the flow of sewage 
to and from them is just as much by gravity as 
if tlie sewers had the usual gravity outlet. 

Time Taken for the Construction of Sewers. 
The construction of the sewers was hegun in 
June, 1903, and they were ready for operation 
in October, 1907. Practically, the entire pop- 
ulated areas of the city are now sewered. It is 
expected by 1917 to have all premises on the 
line of a sewer connected. There is no longer 
a doubt of the efficiency of the sewerage system. 

The Water Supply. In 1810, an attempt was 
made to establish water works, which were of 
the most primitive character. The pipes were 
hollowed cypress logs and the water supply was 
obtained from the river by slave labor. The 
slaves pumped the water into a large reservoir 
from which it was distributed through the 
hollow logs to such citizens as had suljscribed 
The majority of the people depended upon 
cisterns or wells. In 1833, the Commercial Bank 
was organized, its purpose being to establish 
water works in New Orleans. The cypress log 
pijjes were replaced by iron ones. A few cement 
pipes were used but proved unsatisfactory. The 
charter of this company expired in 1869, and the 



city bought the water works, issuing bonds for 
that purpose. Owing to bad management and 
lack of funds, the city in 1877, gave the monoply 
to the New Orleans Water Works Company for 
fifty years. 

The Water Supply Problem. The filters of 
of the New Orleans Water Works Company 
had never yielded a satisfactory effluent. 
Coincident with the design of the sewerage 
system a study was begun of the water problem. 
Many held that the purification of the Mississippi 
River water, so as to convert it into a, safe and 
acceptable water supply was an impossibility; 
and that the only solution was to go north of 
Lake Pontchartrain for a water supply. Others 
believed that a sufficient and satisfactory artesian 
supply could he found. 

Experimental Purification Tests. The Miss- 
issippi Eiver is very muddy and moderately 
liard; its chemical and sanitary conditions are 
excellent. Between 1892 and 1900, the methods 
of treatment wliich were applicable to the eco- 
nomical purification of very muddy, clay-bear- 
ing waters were greatly developed. In 1900, the 
Sewerage and Water Board made a thorough 
study of these methods at an experimental 
plant, built at Audubon Park. Here the proper 




VIEW §HO\VWQ NAPOLEON AVENUE DRAINAGE CANAL IN COURSE OF' CONSTRUCTION. 

—Courtesy N. 0. S. & W. Board, 



48 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



methods to be applied to the Mississippi River 
water at New Orleans were fully determined. 

Water Works Plant. The water works plant, 
covering about seventy acres or twenty-six city 
blocks, was begun in 1905 and put into operation 
in 1908. The water works intake is at the extreme 
upper end of the city. The system of purification 
are sedimentation, coagulation (the coagulants 
being lime and sulphate of iron) and filtration. 
The water is first pumped from the river into 
the grit reservoirs where the coarser suspended 
matter, mostly sand, is removed by sedimenta- 
tion. From here, the water passes into the lime- 
mixing reservoirs; then into the coagulating 
reservoirs where the process of sedimentation 
is completed, and the water is softened and pre- 
pared for filtration. The filters are merely 
gravity sand filters designed to handle large 
quantities of water, and to be easily and cheap- 
ly cleaned. The entire cost of treating and 
filtering the water, and pumping it into the dis- 
tribution system is not over two cents per thou- 
sand galloiQS, and the cost of water' delivered 
through meters is less than the prices paid in 
other metered cities. 

Methods of Water Distribution. New 
Orleans being almost flat, there is no possi- 
bility of a reservoir at high elevations into 
which water can be pumped, and from whicli 
the supply can be drawn. The pumps of this 
plant can be adjusted to maintain whatever 
pressure is desired; and will automatically in- 
crease and decrease their output to maintain 



the pressure for which they are set, and to de- 
liver the quantity of water which is being drawn 
form the mains. Pressure, maintained in this 
way, is as satisfactory as if it were supplied 
from a high level reservoir. The distribution 
system consists of four-inch pipes to forty-eight- 
inch mains and covers 547 miles of streets. 
There are 5,.302 hydrants. The pressure is 
sixty-five pounds per square inch which is am- 
ple for first class fire i3rotection. The present 
capacity of the pumping system, including Al- 
giers, is 100,000,000 gallons per day; the 
present daily consumption averages about 
20,000,000 gallons. 

The Cost and Effect of the Three Systems. 
The three systems combined have cost about 
$26,000,000, and by 1917 will have cost $4,000, 
000 more. The average death rate prevailing 
before the new drainage system went into 
operation was 27.2 i^er 1,000. The death rate 
for 1913 was 19.8 per 1,000. Malarial infection 
has ceased to exist; the city has improved con- 
ditions of living; adequate fire protection; use- 
less tide-level swamps have been developed in- 
to beautiful city suburbs. The world realizes- 
that New Orleans is now a healthful city, no 
longer handicapped by unsanitarj^ conditions. 

TOPICS: The New Orleans Problem; Inception of the 
Present Develo])ment in Drainage and Sewerage Systems; 
Effects of Improved Drainage; Capacity of the Drainage 
System; Operation of the Sewerage System; The Water 
Supply Prol:)lem; The General Operation of the Plant. 

BEFEBENCES: Reports of the Sewerage and Water 
Board. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Health Conditions. 



SECTION 1. EARLY HISTORY OF SANITATION IN NEW ORLEANS. 



Introduction. The excellent health con- 
ditions of New Orleans are due largely to its 
natural advantages. There were, however, 
many obstacles to be removed before it could 
become a healthful city. The surrounding coun- 
try was nothing but swamp; the back water 
from crevasses above or below frequently 
flooded the town; the ground was too flat for a 
natural system of drainage; year after year, 
yellow fever and other tropical diseases im- 
perilled the lives of the citizens. The conquest 
of these menaces to health has been accom- 
plished; so great were some of the achieve- 
ments as to attract the attention of the whole 
world. 

First Sanitary Measures. One of the earliest 
sanitary measures was the cutting of the trees 
between the river and the lake by order of Gov- 
ernor Perrier, so that the fresh lake breezes 
might sweep the settlement. This work was not 
finally completed until during the Civil War. 
It was Grovemor Perrier, also, who caused the 
first levee to be built before the city, thus saving 
it from annual overflow and greatly advancing 
the work of sanitation. 

Drainage. The drainage was very imper- 
fect. There were open ditches along some of 



the streets and a wide ditch surrounded the city; 
but, as the slope of the land was very slight, the 
water in these became stagnant and ill-smelling 
and the banks overgrown by grass and weeds. 
No better breeding place could be found for mos- 
quitoes, while snakes, frogs, and other reptiles 
thrived amidst such surroundings. 

Carondelet Canal. The Spanish governor, 
Carondelet, strove to improve conditions by con- 
structing a canal from the city to the lake. Work' 
was begun in 1794, but, as so many of the labor- 
ers were carried off by the ravages of yellow 
fever, two years elapsed before it was completed. 
The government sought to interest the people in 
land improvement. To this end, lots along the 
canal were offered at very low rental to all who 
would drain them and keep the property in good 
condition. 

Vaccination. The scourge of smallpox fre- 
quently afflicted the colony. In the latter part 
of the eighteenth century. Dr. Jenner, an En- 
glish physician, discovered that, hj inoculating 
people with the virus of cow-pox, they would 
be protected against the dread disease. This was 
called vaccination, and its use was introduced in 
Louisiana in 1802. Since then, smallpox has been 
held in check and is now little to be feared. 



SECTION 2. YELLOW FEVER AND CHOLERA. 



Early Traces of Yellow Fever. It is not ex- 
actly known when yellow fever first made its 
appearance on the continent. Before the coming 
of the white men, the Indians were decimated 
by a malignant fever, thought by those familiar 
with their traditions to have been yellow fever. 
French settlers from the West Indies brought 
this fever into Louisiana in 1701, and again in 
1704, in which latter year it numbered the 
famous Tonti among its victims. Though it 
was present in the colony from time to time 
thereafter, no record of cases or deaths was 



kept until 1796, when the first undeniable epi- 
demic occurred. The population, then about 
six thousand, was very much reduced by this 
epidemic. 

Epidemic of 1853. The yearly visitations of 
the disease, brought usually from Havana or 
other West Indian jjorts, claimed sometimes 
thousands of victims. In 1853, it reached the 
height of its devastation. The epidemic of that 
year was the most severe in the annals of yellow 
fever. A ship from Jamaica brought immigrants, 
infected with the disease, into the citj^. From 



50 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



this source the fever spread in every direction. 
Owing to ignorance of the fact that mosquitoes 
carry yellow fever, thousands contracted the 
disease. By the early part of December, one out 
of every nineteen inhabitants had died from this 
cause. The open, unflushed gaitters, the stag- 
nant water under houses and in vacant lots, the 
muddy, filthy streets, the lack of any system for 
the removal of garbage, created conditions 
favorable to the spread of any epidemic disease. 

The first death from yellow fever was re- 
l^orted May 28th, which was unusually early. 
The disease gained such strong foothold that by 
July 2nd twenty-five succumbed in a single day. 

Like some terrible monster determined to 
have its fill, the pestilence fell upon the city. Eicli 
and poor, old and young alike, felt the awfulness 
of its presence. People fled from their homes in 
terror, but thousands, carrying the infection 
with them, were struck down in their flight. 

The active work of the Howard Association, 
organized by courageous and public-spirited 
citizens to fight the common enemy, succeeded 
in improving conditions and relieving much 
suffering. 

By the middle of July, the admissions to the 
Charity Hospital averaged sixty to one hundred 
daily. The patients were so numerous that even 
the floors were covered with the sick. During 
the first week in August, the deaths in this in- 
stitution alone were equal to one every half 
hour, and on August 22nd, the total number of 
deaths in the city averaged one every five 
minutes. Whole families were wiped out. People 
died in the streets, in stores, in carriages, in 
public places; others were found in their beds, 
where, unattended, they had been overtaken by 
death. To add to the horrors of the situation, 
a period of unremitting rains set in, two months 
passing without a single cloudless day. The soil, 
poorly drained at best, became supersaturated, 
the gutters more foul, .the streets almost im- 
passable. Even the hearses were halted in their 
grewsome task. So great were the numbers to 
be buried that funeral trains jostled each other 
at the cemetery gates and quarrelled for pre- 
cedence. Many others were carried off in dead 
carts by drivers, who went from door to door 
asking if there were any dead to be buried. A 
sufficient number of grave-diggers could not be 
hired at five dollars an hour, and rows of coffins 
were laid in furrows with a few shovelfuls of 
earth thrown over them. The pestilential odors 



became so intolerable that the city officials 
authorized the shooting of cannon and the burn- 
ing of tar to purify the air. The discharge of 
the cannon threw the sick into convulsions and 
had to be discontinued. The rate of mortality 
steadily increased until August 22nd, after 
which there was a slight reduction each day. It 
was not until December, after six months of de- 
vastation, that the stricken city was free of 
fevei'. Crime, always more evident in times of 
disorder, swelled the police reports ;l3ut this was 
more than offset by the heroic acts of humanity 
and self-sacrifice witnessed on every hand. 

War Times. So little was known of the 
causes of yellow fever, so lax were the methods 
of quarantine, that almost every year until the 
Civil War deaths from this source numbered in 
the thousands. The mortality from contagious 
diseases was greatly reduced during that time, 
owing to the absence of a large portion of the 
population, the blockade of the Grulf ports, and 
the rigid quarantine enforced by the Federal 
authorities. 

Epidemic of 1878. In 1878, some officers of 
the Emily B. Souder, a ship from Havana, died 
in New Orleans of yellow fever. No other cases 
were reported for two months, but, from August 
to November, the fever raged. A peculiarity of 
this epidemic was that so many children died, 
whereas, previously, they had not appeared very 
susceptible to yellow fever. 

There was a recurernce of the disease from 
time to time, but no serious outbreak, and for 
many years no cases at all were reported. This 
was due, doubtless, to the improved methods of 
maritime quarantine and fumigation of ships, 
which did away with the carriers of the fever 
long before the mosquito theory was known. 

The Mosquito Theory. It is now an estab- 
lished fact that diseases are transmitted by cer- 
tain insects; typhoid fever, by the fly; bubonic 
plagTie, by the flea; malaria and yellow fever, by 
the mosquito. This does not mean that these in- 
sects are the originators of the disease; they are 
merely carriers of the germ, which must have 
been obtained from some infected source. All 
this has been proven, beyond the possibility of 
a doubt, by investigations and tests costing vast 
sums of money and great risk of life. 

During the Spanish-American War, more 
men were carried off by fevers than by actual 
conflict. So appalling was the death rate from 
this cause, that the United States, GQ,vernment 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



51 



appointed a commission to investigate the causes 
of yellow fever, and to give exhaustive tests to 
the different theories of its origin and transmis- 
sion, particularly the mosquito theory, which 
had hut lately been advanced by Dr. Carlos 
Finlay of Cuba. 

Strange to say, all mosquitoes are not equally 
capable of transmitting a disease. The spotted- 
winged swamp mosquito, which conveys 
malaria, is quite different from the striped- 
legged stegomyia fasciata, the cistern-bred car- 
rier of yellow fever. The manifest necessity for 
destroying these tiny enemies of humanity has 
resulted in a close study of their life-history. It 
has been found that the only practical means of 
extenninating them is to prevent their breeding. 
The eggs are laid in water and, here, the larva, 
or wiggle-tail state, is passed. By pournig oil 
over the surface of the water, the wiggle-tails 
are prevented from securing the necessary 
supply of air; consequently, their death follows. 

If stagnant water were not allowed to remain 
on premises or vacant lots, if gutters were kept 
clean, and if swamps were drained, the mosquito 
would have a very slim chance. The wonderful 
work accomplished by the city's improved 
system of drainage has reduced the multiplying 
of the swamp mosquito, resulting in a steady 
decrease of malarial fever. The stegomyia 
should be made a thing of the past through the 
ordinance requiring the screening of cisterns, 
seconded by care on the part of the householder. 
The only practical method of destroying the 
full-grown mosquito is by fumigation. 

Epidemic of 1905. The work of the Board of 
Health was along these lines during the epidemic 
of 1905. An army of about four hundred men, 
under the personal supervision of Dr. Kohnke, 
the City Health Officer, was set to work oiling, 
screening, fumigating, and, in the infected dis- 
tricts, making house-to-house inspections. 

Isolation Hospital. An isolation hospital, 
located near the originally infected district, 
bounded by St. Ann, Rampart, Barracks streets, 
and the river, was opened July 26, 1905. About 
eighty patients could be cared for at one time, 
and these received the services of many eminent 
physicians. Fathers Parolli and Scotti, Italian 
priests, labored among their countrymen, who 
were the worst sufferers. They ministered to the 
dying and persuaded many, who were ignorant 



of the English language, to allow their sick to 
be taken to the hospital, where they would re- 
ceive proper attention. 

Campaign Turned Over to Federal Authori- 
ties. Entire control of the work of eradication, 
begun by Dr. Kohnke, was turned over to Dr. 
Joseph H. White, chief-in-command of this dis- 
trict of the United States Public Health and 
Marine Hospital Service. This was done because 
of the greater resources at the command of the 
Federal Grovernment, and the proven skill of the 
military sanitary ofli'cers, experienced in fighting 
yellow fever elsewhere. In each ward, a force 
of inspectors, oilers, fumigators, and screners, 
supervised by a competent leader, was organ- 
ized. 

No outside aid, except the services of govern- 
ment officials, was accepted; the state, the city, 
and the citizens contributed $.320,000, four-fifths 
of which was subject to Dr. White's order. 
About $30,000, over and above this, was spent 
by volunteer organizations formed to assist in 
the stupendous task. 

The fever was stamped out before the first 
frost of the season. This was an achievement 
never heard of before in the history of yellow 
fever. 

Result of the Work. The results of this 
epidemic are measured, not so much by the 
deaths ensuing, as by the improveirient in sani- 
tation. There were only 452 deaths, and ten per 
cent of these were cases brought in from out- 
lying infected localities. This seems but a very 
small number, compared with the 7,849 deaths 
from the same disease in 1853. Through this 
campaign, the city received a cleaning such as 
it had never before known ; the people obtained 
knowledge of disease prevention and hygiene; 
and an impetus was given to the completion of 
the sewerage and drainage system. 

Cholera Epidemic, 1832. The darkest year 
in the history of New Orleans was 1832, when 
Asiatic cholera infested the city, carrying off 
one-sixth of the entire population. This disease, 
like yellow fever, was imported from tropical 
countries and appeared, to some extent, almost 
every year. It was never so terrible as in 1832, 
when, with deaths from yellow fever and other 
causes, it raised the rate of mortality to the 
enormous proportion of 147.10 per thousand. 



52 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 
SECTION 3. MARITIME QUARANTINE. 



Establishment of Quarantine Station. The 

quarantine station was first established at En- 
glish Turn in 1821, but a very lax system was 
practiced, as was evident from the frequent 
visitations of yellow fever and other tropical 
diseases foreign to this country. In fact, at 
times, there was no quarantine at all. Alarmed 
by the experiences of 1853 and '54, the legisla- 
ture (1855) appropriated $50,000 for a new 
quarantine station about seventy miles below 
the city. The enforcement of quarantine regu- 
lations was spasmodic. At times, it was applied 
in the strictest sense of forty days' detention; 
again, it was done away with as ineffectual and 
useless because some quarantinable disease 
would reach the port. 

Station Sold to Federal Government. In 
1906, the quarantine station was sold to the Fed- 
eral Government for $100,000, and is now con- 
trolled by the United States Public Health 
Service under the Treasury Department. The 
station forms one of the great series of bulwarks 
against the enemies of public health, more im- 
portant than forts or outposts, for the in- 
vasion of an armed force is seldom threatened, 
but the insidious invasion of disease is a con- 
stant menace. 

How the Federal Government Guards 
Against the Importation of Disease. The United 
States Public Health Service has officers in all 
foreign ports. These officers send to Washing- 
ton, D. C, complete reports of health conditions 
in the localities where they are stationed, with 
special reference to quarantinable diseases. 
There are five such diseases, namely, yellow 
fever, smallpox, Asiatic cholera, bubonic plagne, 
and typhus. The Treasury Department issues 
weekly bulletins containing these reports, be- 
sides which, telegraphic notices of any special 
danger are sent to all maritime quarantine 
stations in the United States. A ship, arriving 
from an infected or suspected port, is thor- 
oughly fumigated and detained long enough for 
any possible cases to develop. The time of de- 
tention varies according to the disease quaran- 



tined against. If there is no manifestation of 
disease after the required number of days have 
elapsed, the shiY> is allowed to proceed on her 
way. 

Time and Money Saved by Modem Method 
of Quarantine. Careful fumigation of ships sub- 
ject to quai'antine, and examination of passen- 
gers, are all that is now necessary, if there are 
no suspicious cases aboard. Sometimes, even 
tbe fumigation is dispensed with, when the 
authorities have sufficient assurance that neither 
crew nor passengers have been exposed to in- 
fection. Thus, there is very little delay or added 
expense to interrupt commerce, as opposed to the 
old method, which indiscriminately held ships 
for weeks, proportionately increasing their cost 
of maintenance and crippling trade. On account 
of the rigid quarantine enforced at one time, a 
large proportion of commerce was diverted from 
New Orleans. 

Vigilance Against Yellow Fever. Any ship 
coming from the tropics or yellow, fever zone, 
during the months when that disease is preva- 
lent, must be detained six days after fumigation. 
Yellow fever symptoms become evident within 
six days after a person has been exposed to the 
disease. In order to save as much time as pos- 
sible, the United States officer in the foreign 
port often fumigates'the vessel-at the hour of 
leaving. Her time at sea is then deducted from 
the six days, and her time of detention at the 
quarantine station will be equal to the differ- 
ence. If the ship is four days at sea, she will 
have but two days to stay at quarantine. The 
fruit vessels, on account of their perishable car- 
goes, are not fumigated, but are required to 
carry physicians, who are responsible for the 
health of all on board, and for the enforcement 
of quarantine regulations. 

Other Cities Adopt New Orleans' Method. 
New Orleans was the first city to adopt this 
system, based on the scientific fact that certain 
diseases take a specific time to develop. San 
Francisco was second in its use, and was soon 
followed by New York. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 
SECTION 4. SANITARY IMPROVEMENTS SINCE 1803. 



53 



Sanitary Improvements. As early as 1817, 
Governor Claiborne suggested quarantine. He 
was forced to abandon his plan because public 
opinion was so bitterly opposed to it. Many 
eminent physicians of the day did not believe 
in importation of disease, and considered quar- 
antine ridiculous. Governor Villere, however, 
was more successful, establishing a quarantine 
station and a Board of Health, in 1821. Both 
enjoyed a very checkered career, being dis- 
solved and re-established many times. The work 
of the Board of Health has been more or less 
continuous since 1855. 

Dr. C. B. White, who was president of the 
Board of Health in the seventies, inaugurated 
a sanitary campaign in New Orleans and intro- 
duced the disinfection of premises with carbolic 
acid. 

The Auxiliary Sanitary Association was or- 
ganized after the epidemic of 1878. They estab- 
lished a system of flushing the gutters, all open 
at that time, by water from public hydrants and 



by water lifted from the river by a steam pump 
erected for that purpose. They also furnished 
the city with boats for the removal of garbage. 
From that time on there has been a steady im- 
provement in sanitation, as is evidenced by the 
gradual reduction of the rate of mortality. 

Potent Factors in Sanitation. The most 
powerful factors in attaining and maintaining 
the present salubrity of New Orleans have been: 

1. Drainage of adjacent swamps. 

2. "Water supply. 

3. Sewerage and Drainage Systems. 

4. Effective Quarantine. 

5. Activity of the State and City Boards of 

Health. 

6. Paving of Streets. 

7. Cleaning of city and removal of waste. 

8. Enlightenment of masses in matters of 

sanitation and personal hygiene. (1, 2, 
3, and 4 have already been explained; 
6, considered in Chapter XVI.) 



SECTION 5. STATE BOARD OF HEALTH. 



State Board of Health. With the wonderful 
progress of medical science and with the realiza- 
tion that most diseases are preventable, epidem- 
ics have become a matter of history in all mod- 
ernized communities. Always conservative, Lou- 
isiana was slow to adopt preventive measures 
until the weight of public opinion and the testi- 
mony of sister states forced upon her legislators 
the necessity for an effective quarantine and 
Board of Health. A State Board was estab- 
lished in 1855, but reorganized in 1898; since 
then, with limited resources, it has steadily 
labored to improve conditions in Louisiana. 
The last five years (1910-1915), especially, have 
marked a wonderful advance in sanitation, re- 
lieving Louisiana of the stigma of insalubrity 
and unprogressiveness. People do not live in 
unhealthy surroundings through preference, but 
through ignorance. The health exhibit car, by 
teaching people how to live and how to guard 
against disease, has accomplished remarkable 
results. This work has been supplemented by 



laws requiring jDCople to care for their health, 
such as the regulations regarding public drink- 
ing cups, common towels, habit-forming drugs, 
barber shops, and others. 

Sanitary Inspection. In order that all sani- 
tary regulations may be properly enforced, the 
Board of Health has a regular system of inspec- 
tion. Score cards, containing questions which 
may vary according to the nature of the place 
to be visited, are furnished the inspector. This 
officer fills out the blanks, points out violations 
of regulations, takes samples, and makes seiz- 
ures. All cards are sent to the head offices, 
where they are filed and graded. Notices are 
then sent to owners or managers with a time 
limit set for improvement, after which, if the 
regulations are still violated, vigorous prosecu- 
tion follows. 

In the city of New Orleans, the state and city 
boards cooperate in these inspections. Many 
places have been closed temporarily and, though 
this crippled their business for the time, they 



54 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



were recompensed by the advertisement gained 
on reopening under the approval of the Board 
of Health. 

This rigid inspection has caused great im- 
provement in the dairies of New Orleans. Nearly 
all the barn^ have been whitewashed inside, 
milk-houses screened, barnyards drained and 
cleaned, and the small-top milk pail introduced. 
The campaign against unsanitary markets has 
resulted in the screening ordinance and the erec- 
tion of several "model" markets, such as the 
Dryades and the renovated portion of the French 
Market. 

Food and Drug Laws and Regulations, and 
Ket Weight and Measure Laws. In 1906, the 
Legislature passed the first Food and Drug Law, 
authorizing the 
State Board of 
Health to make 
rule s governing 
the manufacture, 
sale and inspec- 
tion of foods, 
drugs, liquors, 
and waters, in so 
far as they might 
affect the public 
health. Further 
laws have since 
been enacted 
against mis- 
branding of foods, 
drugs, etc., and 
also requiring all 
foods sold in 
package form to 
bear the net weight or measure of the contents. 

The Food and Drug Department of the State 
Board of Health, therefore, looks into food adul- 
teration and misbranding, and regulates the sale 
of habit-forming drugs. Foods are adulterated 
if any substance has been substituted for the 
article, if any valuable constituent has been 
taken out, if any substance has been added to 
reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality 
or strength, if any poisonous or deleterious in- 
gredient has been added, or if it consists in 



whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed animal 
or vegetable matter. For example, milk may 
be adulterated by watering, by skimming, by 
having added to it a chemical to jsreserve it, 
or by becoming spoiled or putrid. All canned 
goods having puffed or swelled ends are adul- 
terated, since the contents are nearly always 
spoiled. Food and drugs are misbranded if the 
label contains any statement regarding the in- 
gredients which is false or misleading in any 
particular. For example, cotton seed oil labelled 
"olive oil," patent medicines bearing false 
cui'ative claims, or any packages labelled with 
incorrect weight or measure are misbranded. 

Habit-forming drugs, such as morphine, 
opium, cocaine, and their compounds, cannot 

be sold except 







under the pre- 
scription of a phy- 
sician. The sale of 
poisonous drugs 
is also regulated. 

The food and 
drug department 
iias an inspection 
force, a labora- 
tory, and analj'sts. 
It makes a spe- 
cialty of the 
analysis of city 
water supplies 
and ]niblic school 
supplies. 

The State Board 
of Health con- 
duets a bacterio- 
logical department. The Department of Vital 
Statistics is under the control of the Board of 
Health and is conducted by the State Registrar. 
Besides these varied activities, there is a 
force of men for the inspection of oils, which, 
by explosion or combustion, might endanger life 
or property. No burning or illuminating oil 
that would ignite below 125° F. can be sold in 
Louisiana, and all receptacles containing oil to 
be sold must bear the signature of a Board of 
Health inspector. 



KRENUH MARKET BEFORE RENOVATION. 

— Courtesy La. State Board of Health 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



55 



SECTION 6. CITY BOARD OF HEALTH. 



Organization. The City Board of Health 
was estabhshed by act of the Legislature in 1898, 
making it distinct and separate from the state 
board. The act establishing the commission 
form of government for the City of New Orleans 
provides for a board of health consisting of five 
members, one to be the Mayor, one the Commis- 
sioner of Public Safety, and three other mem- 
bers at large to be chosen by the commission 
council, at least one of whom shall be a physician 
licensed to practice medicine in the Parish of 
Orleans. 

. Maintenance. This board is maintained by 
appropriation by 
the city council, 
amounting, in 
1913, to about 
$57,000 and by 
revenues obtained 
from fees, fines, 
etc., amounting in 
the same year to 
about $45,700. 

Prevention of 
Contagion. One of 
the most impor- 
tant activities of 
the guardians of 
the public health 
is the care of com- 
municable dis- 
eases. Physicians 
are required by 
law to report all 
such cases to the 
office of the Board of Health, where, by a care- 
fully planned system, the exact city block in- 
fected and the progress o| the case is noted. The 
house occupied by the patient suffering from a 
contagious disease is posted, and quarantine 
maintained until the premises have been fumi- 
gated by officers of the Board of Health. During 
the period of contagion, health inspectors visit 
the infected pi-emises to ascertain that all re- 
quirements as to disinfection are observed. A 
house-to-house inspection of the nine blocks sur- 
rounding the point of infection is made. All 
Board of Health inspectors are empowered to 
arrest those who violate the sanitary ordinances. 



Food Inspection. As a large proportion of 
sickness is caused by poor or tainted food, the 
duty of inspecting food supplies devolves upon 
health officers. Dairies, bakeries, confection- 
eries, abattoirs, markets, restaurants, and hotels 
come under special supervision. Numerous and 
detailed ordinances requiring a high standard of 
sanitation, are enforced in New Orleans. As an 
illustration, some of those regulating the oper- 
ation of a dairy will be given. Before a dairy 
may be opened, a permit must be obtained from 
the Board of Health, whose duty it is to see that 
the buildings used for dairy purposes are well 

lighted, venti- 
lated, and con- 
structed; that the 
room used for 
storing milk is not 
near the stable 
nor living room ; 
and that the water 
supply is pui'e and 
adequate. Veteri- 
narians examine 
the cows. Samples 
of milk and other 
dairy products, 
taken at irregnilar 
intervals, are sub- 
jected to chemical 
tests to ascertain 
the iDresence of 
adulterants, pre- 
servatives, or im- 
purities. (See 
Chapter IX. for meat inspection.) 

All restaurants, hotels, and other places of 
similar character are subject to inspection with- 
out notice. Refrigerators,, storerooms, and 
kitchens undergo a thorough examination, and, 
unless they meet the required standard, the 
Ijlaces are closed until they have received a 
cleaning satisfactory to the health authorities. 
The owners are fined for violation of health 
ordinances. 

Bacteriological Department. Besides a 
chemist, the board employs the services of an 
expert bacteriologist, a doctor who has made 
the study of germs a specialty. Sometimes a 




FRENCH MARKET AFTER UEMOV VTION 

— Courtesy La. State Board of Health. 



56 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



l)liysieian is doubtful as to the nature of the 
disease, for many germ diseases are similar in 
their early stages. Suppose he suspects a case 
to be diphtheria; he takes a culture from the 
patient's throat, that is, wipes it out with a 
little swab. This is sent to the bacteriologist, 
who, by a microscopic examination, can ac- 
curately diagnose the disease. The doctor is 
then enabled to jjroceed with suitable treat- 
ment, instead of waiting for more pronoimced 



symptoms to develop. This department exer- 
cises constant vigilance over the city water 
supply that there may be no contamination 
from that quarter. 

Department of Vital Statistics. This depart- 
ment may be justly regarded as the barometer 
of public health, whereby we are enabled to com- 
pare conditions of past years. Such a compar- 
ison shows a steady improvement for the last 
half century. 



MORTALITY RATE, 

Showing the High Death Rate of Years Ago, the Improved Conditions of the Past Decade, and the Constant Decline in 

Rate in Each Decade. 

GENERAL DEATH RATE PER THOUSAND OF POPULATION. 



1809-'19 52.95 

1820-'29 48.55 

1830- '39 63.55 

1840- '49.. 51.59 

1850- '59 60.49 



1860-'69 40.22 

1870-'79 37.77 

1880- '89 27.62 

1890- '99 27.05 

1900- '09 21.04 



DEATH RATE OF 1913. 

White 14.94 

Colored 29.95 

White and colored 18.98 



13.56 
25.60 
16.82 



The importance of such records seems trivial 
to the average person, but they prove of in- 
calculable value in the studj' of cause and effect, 



to those vested with the care of public health; 
hence, the registration of births, marriages, and 
deaths has been made compulsory by law. 



SECTION 7. REMOVAL OF GARBAGE. 



Old. System. The proj^er disposal of waste 
matter can hardly be overrated as to its effect 
on the sanitary conditions of a community. The 
old method, jDracticed in New Orleans, of haul- 
ing all garbage to the river front to be loaded on 
boats, which carried it to a point below the city, 
there to be dumped into the river, has been done 
away with by national legislation. 

System in Use. The system adopted and at 
present in operation, is that of dumping such 
refuse into the outlying lowlands. All garbage 
must be kept in tightly closed metal cans, which 
are placed ujDon the banquette early each morn- 
ing, except Sundays. An army of carts carries 
it from individual premises to the Public Belt 
by which it is transferred to cars running out 



into the swamps, where it is deposited in the 
vicinity of Bayou Bienvenu. 

The High Temperature Destructor. Such a 
system is necessarily only temporary as the 
lands are gradually being drained and occupied 
by the surplus population of a growing city. 
This is duly recognized by the city authorities 
who have made a careful study of the subject. 
They have arrived at the conclusion that the use 
of the high temperature destructor is the most 
economical and effective method in every way 
best suited to the needs of the situation. This 
consists of a hugh receptacle for the garbage, 
where, by forced drafts, the temperature, aver- 
aging from 1800° Fahrenheit to 2000° Fahren- 
heit, destroys everything and reduces all glass 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



57 



and metals to a clinker. It possesses the added 
advantage of consuming all obnoxious odors, so 
that it might be constructed in. the heart of the 
city without causing discomfort to the populace. 



power easily converted into electrical energy, 
can be produced. This method has been ex- 
plained as its adoption has been authorized by 
an act of the legislature and, before long, it will 



By the high temperature, enormous steam most likely be in operation. 



SECTION 8. PRESENT ACTIVITY OF THE BOARD OF HEALTH. 



Bubonic Plague. The efficacy of modern sani- 
tary and ijreventive measures was amply proven 
in the summer of 1914. An unknown Scandi- 
navian was taken ill at the home of the Volun- 
teers of America, and after several days, re- 
moved to the Charity Hospital, where his malady 
was pronounced bubonic plagxie. There had been 
eases of the plague in Havana for several years, 
but careful quarantine had kept it out of New 
Orleans, this being the first case on record. 

Prompt Action of the Boards. Contrary to 
the concealment policy practiced in former 
years and responsible for epidemics in New 
Orleans, all facts were immediately made 
known, other states notified, and citizens urged 
and instructed how to assist in the work; thus, 
not only the lives of the people but thousands of 
dollars were saved, for the sum expended in rat 
extermination would have been but a drop in the 
bucket had the contagion been allowed to 
spread. Other cities retained their confidence 
in New Orleans and business was uninterrupted. 
The announcement, which a few years ago 
would have caused a panic, sent but a slight 
tremor of fear through the city, and this was 
soon quelled by the prompt and decisive action 
of the State and City Boards of Health. 

Campaign Against Rats. As rats have the 



plague and rat fleas transmit it to luiman 
beings, there had to be a war on rats. Taking 
the Home of the Volunteers of America as a 
focus, a district with a radius of four squares was 
marked off as the infected area, where the rat 
extermination was to begin. The inmates of the 
Home were isolated in a perfectly rat proof 
building until the time required for the disease 
to. develop had passed. A large force was set to 
work in the district marked off, catching the 
rodents, which were immersed in kerosene to 
kill the fleas, and then sent to the Board of 
Health laboratories for bacteriological exami- 
nation. As the matter was of vital importance, 
not only to the city of New Orleans, but to the 
entire nation, it was deemed expedient to turn 
the campaign over to Surgeon General Rupert 
Blue of the United States Public Health Service, 
who had made a deep study of the plague and 
successfully combated it in Honolulu and San 
Francisco. 

Ratproofing. An ordinance was passed re- 
quiring all premises to be ratproofed that is, all 
buildings must be so constructed that rats can- 
not Jive in the walls or floors, and all rubbish, 
where they might find shelter, must be destroy- 
ed. This has resulted in cleaning up the city as 
well as reducing the number of rats. 



SECTION 9. ENLIGHTENMENT OF THE PEOPLE. 



Legislatures and Boards of Health can accom- 
plish very little without a corresponding effort 
on the part of the people for a decent, hygienic 
way of living. Such a condition can be realized 



only by enlightening the masses in matters of 
hygiene and sanitation, a work already under- 
taken by public-spirited physicians, by the State 
and City Boards of Health, and by the schools. 



58 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



SECTION 10. HOSPITALS. 



Charity Hospital. One of the oldest insti- 
tutions in the United States for the care of the 
sick is the Charity Hospital. See Chapter XI. 

Hotel Dieu. The nucleus of the present 
Hotel Dieu was the Maison de Sante opened in 
1852 by four Sisters of Charity from Emmits- 
burg, Maryland, at the clinic of Dr. Warren 
Stone. He befriended them during his lifetime 
and left them in possession of his property at 
death. The increasing demand upon the ser- 
vices of the gentle Sisters made the need for 
larger and better accommodations imperative, 
which resulted in their removal in 1858 to the 
present Hotel Dieu. With the growth of the in- 
stitution and advance in medical science, they 
have steadily enlarged their opportunities of 
service to suffering humanit3^ Here, besides 
caring for the sick, they conduct a most success- 
ful training school for nurses. 

Touro Infirmary. The Touro Infirmary was 
the gift to the Hebrews of New Orleans of 
Judah Touro, a Jewish merchant and philan- 
thropist, who by his industry and thrift, 
amassed a fortune, the bulk of which was de- 
voted to charitable purposes. One bequest was 
$40,000 for an almhouse. This was managed by 



the Touro Infirmary Society, which maintained 
a small hospital at Levee and Graiennie streets. 
Later, they consolidated with the Hebrew Be- 
nevolent Association, and the site of the present 
hospital was purchased. Here, modern build- 
ings with excellent equijament have been con- 
structed, in connection with which a home for 
the aged and infirm was"built by Julius Weis. 

Presbyterian Hospital. The New Orleans 
Sanitarium, now the Presbyterian Hospital, was 
opened in 1886 as a training school for nurses, 
the first in the South. 



TOPICS: 1, Early History of Sanitation in New Orleans; 
2, Yellow Fever and Cholera; 3, Maritime Quarantine; 
4, Sanitary Improvements Since 1803; 5, State Board of 
Health; 6, City Board of Health; 7, Removal of Garbage; 
8, Present Activity of the Board of Health; 9, Enlighten- 
ment of the People; 10, Hospitals. 

REFERENCES: Waring & Cable, History and Present Con- 
dition of New Orleans, 1880; Rightor (editor), Stand- 
ard History of New Orleans; Augustin, History of 
Yellow Fever; Biennial Reports of the Louisiana State 
Board of Health; Biennial Reports of the Board of 
Health of the City of New Orleans; Sanitary Code of 
the State of Louisiana; Laws and Ordinances Relating 
to Health and Sanitation of the City of New Orleans; 
Kohnke, The Problem of Mosquito Destruction in New 
Orleans. 



CHAPTER V. 



System of Communication. 



SECTION 1. POSTAL SYSTEM— POST OFFICE. 



The post office is a government service for 
the dispatch of letters, parcels, etc. The proto- 
type of the modern postal system existed at an 
early date among the Persians, Romans, Aztecs, 
Chinese, and other peoples, in the form of an 
organized estahlishment of state carriers. In 
America, the first step in the organization of a 
postal system, was the appointment in 1639, in 
the Massachusetts colony, of an official to take 
charge of the delivery of letters. The American 
Congress, in July, 1775, appointed Benjamin 
■Franklin as the first postmaster-general. 

Beginning of the Mail System in New Or- 
leans. Previous to the introduction of the mail 
system, post riders, stage coaches, and steam- 
boats carried the mail to all parts of the United 
States. A mail coach, owned by -two Orleanians, 
ran in 1804-1805 from 
New Orleans to Man- 
chac Church twice a 
week. A post office 
was established in New 
Orleans by the United 
States soon after its 
acquisition of Lou- 
isiana. Blaise Cenas 
was the first post- 
master, his commission 
being dated October, 
1803. In 1804, the post- 
master made the an- 
nouncement that the 
mail would arrive in 
New Orleans every 
Monday and leave on 
every Tuesday. In Sep- 
tember, 1910, the mails 
began to arrive and de- 
part more frequently. 
By May, 1811, New Or- 
leans boasted of the 



fast time made by the mails. It took twenty 
days for a letter to reach New Orleans from 
Washington City; to-day, it takes about thirty- 
four hours. 

The railway mail service was inaugurated 
in 1864, after a successful experiment upon a 
few large railroad lines. It has reached a per- 
fection, attainable only in a country of great 
extent. This service is one of the earliest ex- 
ponents of classified civil service. 

Postage. Originally, postage was charged 
according to the distance that a letter had to be 
carried. At first, there were no postage stamps, 
and the cost was marked across the face of the 
letter, to be paid by the person receiving it. 
Some letters cost only six cents, while others 
cost as much as twenty cents. Heavy letters 




UNITED STATES POST OFFICE. 



60 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



often cost tliree or four times that amount. The 
use of adhesive stamps was authorized by Con- 
gress in March, 1847. In 1856, prepayment by 
stamps was made compulsory. In 1863, postage 
on letters was three cents per half ounce, but, 
then, was reduced to two cents per ounce. 

The system of registry, adopted in 1855, did 
not attain any degTee of excellence until after 
1860. The money-order system was established 
in 1864. Money-orders are exchanged with most 
of the important countries of the world which 
have money-order systems of their own. The 
introduction of the parcel post, January, 1913, 
was the result of many years of agitation for the 
admission to the mails of parcels of merchandise 
of greater weight than four pounds, and for a 
lower rate on this class of matter. This was the 
first time the Post Office Department inaugu- 
rated a new service and put it into immediate 
operation without trying it on a small scale. 

Under an order issued at Washington, Octo- 
ber 1, 1914, the postmasters of New Orleans and 
fourteen other cities are directed to assist in 
Imilding up the farm-to-table business of the par- 
cel post. The way is thus opened for direct deal- 
ing between consumers and producers. The only 
middleman in the transaction will be the post 
office and the only tolls will be the cost of the 
stamps. In one or two cities where the plan has 
been tried, newspaper accounts have indicated 
its partial failure. Whether it will succeed in 
New Orleans, with its numerous suburban ti'uck 
faiius, public markets, and wagon peddlers, re- 



mains to be seen. The wider competition it 
makes possible ought to discourage any tendency 
to excessive prices in the local markets, just as 
"water competition" discourages unreasonably 
high rail rates. 

The Postal Savings department was also 
established in 1913. The deposits for the fiscal 
year ending June, 1914, amomited to nearly 
$105,000, credited to 795 depositors. 

Establishment of Sub-stations. Two sub- 
stations were established in 1882, one in Carroll- 
roUton, and one in Algiers. In 1890, four other 
stations were added, and at present, every 
neighborhood has a convenient station within 
its boundaries. 

The free delivery system has been extended 
to tlie suburbs of the city to those who liave pro- 
vided the requirements of paved sidewalks, ex- 
tending from the former line of delivery service 
to their residences, of house numbers, and of 
mail boxes. The business districts now have five 
deliveries a day. 

The Special Delivery system was put into 
operation in 1895. The collection carts were 
introduced in 1899. Since 1860, the post office 
has occupied a part of the lower floor of the 
Custom House. This department was moved 
into the handsome building in Camp street, 
opposite Lafayette Square, in March, 1915. 

TOPICS: Early History of the Postal System; The Begin- 
ning of the Mail System of New Orleans; Postage. 

REFERENCES: Nelson's Encyclopedia; Newspaper Piles. 



SECTION 2. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 



Early Modes of Communication. The savage, 
who lights a fire so that the smoke may be seen 
from afar by his comrades, is using a telegraph 
such as all men used once upon a time. The sol- 
dier who waves two flags about in a peculiar 
maimer, is also telegraphing. The heliograph, 
a mii'ror reflecting the rays of the sun, flashes 
messages to those who can read the signals. 
This latter method is used to-day in some parts 
of California. Electricity, one of nature's most 
powerful forces, carefully kept its secret for 
ages. Now, that its use is known, man is able 
to achieve wonders. 

No one is absolutely certain as to the name 



of the man who first suggested the electric tele- 
gi'aph. Many clever inventors prepared the 
way. Among these are Volta, Humphrey Davy, 
Michael Faraday, Francis Eonald, Sir Charles 
Wheatstone, and Sir William Cooke. The last 
two mentioned made, in 1838, the first practical 
telegraph used in England, and from that be- 
ginning her whole national system of tele- 
gxaphic communication has sprung. 

In America, when there arises a demand for 
something vital which shall play an mportant 
part in national development, science comes for- 
ward to meet the need. When a swifter mode 
of communication between commercial centers 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



61 



became necessary, Professor Morse was able to 
transform into a messenger boy of commerce 
that mysterious force which Benjamin Franklin 
had captured from the clouds. Morse's alphabet 
and method of telegraphing are used through- 
out America. 

The Growth of the Telegraph System. At 
the beginning of the nineteenth century, there 
was not a line of electric telegraph in the United 
States. To-day, there is a vast mileage travers- 
ing all lands and all seas. ' ' God and man have 
linked the nations together." The growth of 
the system is bounded by less than seventy-five 
years, most of it by the last thirty-five years. 
Edison invented the quadruplex system and also 
a means of sending six telegrams simultaneously. 

First Line Into New Orleans. The Washing- 
ton and New Orleans Telegraph Company was 
operated in 1848, and became one of the most 
important lines in the country. Four other com- 
panies operated lines into New Orleans between 
1856 and 1866. The Western Union, organized 
in Rochester, New York, in 1851, had absorbed 
all lines South and Southwest, by 1866. Its only 
formidable rival is the Postal Telegraph, which 
was organized in 1883. 

Telegraph Offices in New Orleans. In former 
years, the gravity "bluestone" batteries were 
exclusively used and are still used in small 
towns, but in New Orleans, as in all other large 
cities, these have been replaced by the dynamos. 
There are about one hundred wires from differ- 
ent parts of the country entering the Western 
Union office in New Orleans. Single lines are 
used along the railroad routes, but trunk lines 
are employed between large cities. The wires 
are duplexed and quadruplexed, hence, two or 
four messages can be sent in opposite directions 
at the same time. The duplex system consists 
of a receiving and sending apparatus at each 
end, which are worked simultaneously without 
interference with each other. For example. New 
Orleans sends a message to Memphis and Mem- 
phis to New Orleans at the same time without 



mixing the signals. The quadruplex is a com- 
bination of two duplexes of different designs on 
which New Orleans can have two operators 
sending messages to Memphis, and Memphis to 
New Orleans; while Memphis can connect St. 
Louis or Chicago by the automatic repeating 
apparatus on one side, and can send messages 
to New Orleans, while St. Louis or Chicago is 
using the wire. The wires come into the office 
by a switchboard, an apparatus by which the 
chief can locate trouble on the wires between 
stations, and give the necesasry instructions. 

Ocean Cables. We owe this remarkable 
means of communication to Cyrus Field, who, 
after several failures, succeeded in putting the 
New World on conversational terms with the 
Old. New Orleans sends her cable messages for 
Europe to the Western Union and Postal Tele- 
graph offices in New York, where they are trans- 
ferred to the Atlantic Cable companies for trans- 
mission to Liverpool and then by land, in most 
cases, to their destination. Dispatches for east- 
ern Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Ocean points 
are sent for transmission to the Pacific Cable 
Company in San Francisco. The Mexican and 
South American cable service is handled from 
Galveston, Texas, but Mexico can also be reached 
by land lines via El Paso and Laredo, Texas. 
The West Indian business is done throijgh 
Tampa and Key West. 

Wireless Telegraph. Marconi's patent was 
applied for in England, in 1896, and obtained in 
1897. Wireless stations are now operated in all 
seaports. The first one in New Orleans was 
erected by the United Fruit Company. There 
are now three wireless stations in New Orleans ; 
one, on the Hotel Grunewald, operated by the 
Marconi Company ; another, at the Naval Station 
in Algiers ; and the third, operated by the LTnited 
Fruit Company. 

TOPICS: Early Modes of Communication; The First Tele- 
graphic Lines into New .Orleans; Ocean Cables; 
Wireless. 

REFERENCES: Archives of Cabildo. 



SECTION 3. THE TELEPHONE. 



History tells us, as early as 1667, that Eobert 
Hooke made sound travel along a stretched wire. 
Philip Eeis of Frankfort, Germany, produced 
an electric telephone in 1861. In 1876, two tele- 



phones were patented; one by Elisha Gray, the 
other, by Alexander Graham Bell. These two 
men, imknown to each other, applied on the 
same day at the Washington office for their 



62 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



patents. Bell 's proved the better instrument, and 
with many improvements is still in use. Thomas 
Edison has given us one of the most important 
things in the telephone — the carbon transmitter. 

How the Sound Carries. We use the tele- 
phone to change the air waves into electric 
waves, which travel along the wire quicker than 
sound travels from the tongue to the ear. The 
words strike one disc and become electric waves ; 
the waves strike another disc and become words 
again, because both discs are in tune and give 
off the same sound when the wave strikes them. 

The First Telephone in New Orleans. The 
iirst telei^hone put into service in New Orleans 
was brought from the Philadelphia Exposition, 
1876, by a member of the firm of Horter and 
Fenner, manufacturers of saddleiy and harness. 
This firm connected their salesroom on Maga- 
zine and Gravier with their factory on Poydras 
and Church streets. Shortly after this intro- 
duction, the Louisiana Telephone Company 
fitted up an exchange on the top floor of the 
Denegre Building. Their system was known as 
the Magneto System. They employed boys 
seventeen to twenty years of age as operators. 
The switchboards were different from the ones 
used at the present time, and the connections 
complicated and difficult to complete. Both 
pevsons, when wishing to disconnect their lines, 
would signal the operator with a short ring. If, 
after the termination of a conversation, they 
failed to notify the operator, the connection 
would remain on the switchboard until some one 
went to a neighboring telephone and asked the 
operator to disconnect the lines. The first con- 
versation held over the telephones of this com- 
pany was in the nature of a concert. One instru- 
ment was installed at Camp and Gravier streets 
and the other at the Magazine market. Singers 
were engaged to sing into the receivers, enter- 
taining those at the other end of the line. This 
company soon had about 1100 subscribers. 

Great Southern Telephone and Telegraph 
Company. In 1883, the Louisiana Telephone 
Company was sold to the Great Southern Tele- 
phone and Telegraph Company. This company 
removed the telephone circuits from the house- 
tops and placed ^them upon cros-arms on poles. 
On January 20, 188.3, the boy operators were re- 
placed by girls, with the exception of the chief 
night operator and one assistant. The style of 
equipment was changed and the first Western 
Miiltiple Switchboard installed, with a capacity 



for 1800 subscribers. The demand for service 
became so great that the modern building now 
known as the Main Exchange, was constructed. 
The first private branch exchange was installed 
for the Cotton Centennial Exposition of 1884. 

In 1897, the Cumberland Telephone and Tele- 
graph Company acquired the Great Southern. 
They have made such a success that to-day they 
have 22,187 city subscribers, serving them through 
seven exchanges known as Main, Hemlock, Gal- 
vez. Uptown, Walnut, Jackson, and Algiers. 

Description of an Exchange. The exchange 
is a wonderful sight. The walls are lined with 
switchboards, which enable one to talk any dis- 
tance. These boards are covered with tiny holes 
like a bee's honeycomb, each having a number. 
On them are dull glass knobs no larger than a 
shoe button, also having numbers. In front of 
these boards are the clerks, generally women. 
At their ears they have receivers, the part of the 
telephone which gives the message, and under 
the lips a transmitter which sends the message. 
Both are fitted so as to leave the hands free. The 
moment a man lifts his telephone, one of the 
knobs of dull glass on the switchboard lights up. 
The clerk sees the light, looks at the number 
under it, and puts a plug in the hole in the 
honeycomb having the same number. As soon 
as this plug is put in, the telephone is connected 
with exchange and he tells the clerk he wants 
to speak to Main, 179. Quickly, she lifts another 
plug joined to the first one and puts it into the 
hole having the number the man wants. When 
she does this, a bell rings at Main, 179 ; the owner 
of that office takes up his telephone and talks to 
the man who has called him. When they have 
finished talking, they hang up the receiver, the 
little light goes out, the clerk removes the plugs, 
and the wires are disconnected. 

The volume of telegraphic communication 
has been enormously lessened by the telephone. 
This reduction in telegraphic business results 
from the substitution of long-distance calls. The 
telegraph remains superior for long distances, 
if the message is taken as a unit, but on the base 
of the number of words and time for exchange 
of messages, the telegraph is at a disadvantage. 
The rates for the two methods differ little for 
medium distances. 

TOPICS: The Invention of the Telephone; The Telephone 
in New Orleans; Description of an Exchange; Bates 
of Telephone and Telegraph. 

REFERENCES: City Aichivea; Pamphlets of Telephone; 
Conjpany. 



SECTION 4. STREET RAILWAYS. 



63 



Early History of Street Oar Lines. As a 

means of public conveyance, the omnibus was 
first used. The first line of street ears in the 
United States was the one established by the 
New Orleans and CarroUton Company, Septem- 
ber 26, 1835. It ran from the corner of Canal 
and Baronne streets to Carrollton, the same 
route now traversed by the St. Charles Belt. 
The charter given this company authorized 
them to lay one single track between the above 
named points. It stated that if the majority of 
the inhabitants, through whose property it 
passed, complained of it as a nuis- 
ance, this company, after receiving 
thirty days notice from the mayor, 
had to remove the track and put the 
street in the same order as Ijefore. 
In 1845, steam dummies were placed 
on this road from Carrollton to Lake 
Pontchartrain. From Lee Circle the 
cars were brought down by means of animal 
power. Rope cables were tried as a means of 
propelling the cars, but owing to the shrinking, 
of the rope with the changes of the barometer, 
had to be given up. The fare was I2V2 cents 
from Canal street to Lee Circle, 18% cents from 
the Circle to Jackson avenue, and 50 cents from 
the Circle to Carrollton. 

In February, 1893, electricity was adopted 
on this road. In 1899, the track was rebuilt and 
the Canal and Claiborne line was purchased by 
them. The City Eailroad Company, formed in 
June, 1860, commenced to run their cars in 
June, 1861, from Canal and Eampart via Es- 
planade to Bayou Bridge. These cars were built 
in omnibus style. By June, 1864, this company 
ran the Magazine and Prytania lines to Pleasant 
street; the Kampart and Dauphine lines to the 
Barracks; and the Canal street line to the City 
Park and the Cemeteries. The Levee and Bar- 
racks line was opened in 1866. This same com- 
pany purchased the New Orleans City and Lake, 
and the Crescent City railroad companies. The 




MIILH TRACTION'. 



St. Charles Street Railroad Companies, organ- 
ized in 1866, built the Carondelet, Dryades and 
Clio lines. It was the first company to issue 
transfers. The Orleans Railroad Company was 
organized in 1869, with three lines — Bayou St. 
John, Broad Street, and French Market. Elec- 
tricity was used on all the main lines by 1895. 

Present System. The New Orleans Railway 
and Light Company, organized in 1905, now 
operates every street railway in New Orleans, 
besides an electric light plant and a gas plant. 
It controls twenty-nine distinct lines, pene- 
trating every portion "of the city. 
The nominal fare is five cents and 
a imiversal system of transfers en- 
ables passengers to reach long dis- 
tances and outlying districts with- 
out additional cost. There are 206 
miles of single track, 583 motor and 
passenger cars, besides work cars, 
wreckers, sprinklers, etc. This plant has four 
genei'ating stations for electricity; twenty-eight 
generators with a capacity of 337,000 kilowatts. 
The passenger traffic in 1913 was 87,058,951 
revenue and 22,373,512 transfers, making a 
total of 109,412,463 passengers. It furnishes 
the electrical current for lighting and power 
purposes. The gas mains run everywhere, gas 
being used for fuel and heating as well as for 
lightihg. 

TOPICS: Early History of the Car Lines; The Present 
System. 

REFERENCES: Rightor's History; City Hall Archives. 




LiTEST MODEL OF ELECTRIC CAE IN USE IN 
NEW ORLEANS. 



CHAPTER VI. 



Trade. 



SECTION 1. SHIPPING. 



Port. The word "port" comes from a Latin 
word, meaning "gate." The term is used to 
designate a place, where goods brought to it on 
land, are placed on boats to be carried over 
water, or taken from boats to be carried by land. 

Tonna,ge. The amount of freight a ship can 
carry is called "tonnage." Her freight-carry- 
ing capacity is spoken of as so many ' ' tons regis- 
ter." This is because every ship is required to 
have a home port, where she is registered; the 
number of tons she can carry is part of her de- 
scription; this number is found out by ascertain- 
ing how many cubic feet of space she contains. 
A tax called "tonnage dues" is collected on her 
arrival in a new country. 

International Regulations. The rules were 
originally made for sailing vessels. When steam- 
ships were built, space had to be allowed for 
boilers, engines, and fuel, which space could not 
be used for freight. These deductions are by 
agreement among nations, practically the same 
everywhere, and amount to much more than the 
actual space occupied by the machinery, etc. 
This lessens the tonnage, and so makes the run- 
ning of the ship cheaper, which is a benefit to 
commerce. The freight on a ship is called 
"cargo." As a matter of fact, ships can usually 



take cargo equal to nearly twice their registered 
tonnage. Ordinarily, a 3,000 ton ship will take 
5,600 tons of cargo. 

Control by United States Government. In 
the United States, all laws and rules with regard 
to registration, measurement, tonnage dues, and 
navigation, are passed by Congress and are 
under its authority. All navigable waters are 
controlled by the United States Government. 

Control of Wharves. The wharves and land- 
ings and all laws and rules affecting them, are 
passed by the State Legislature and are under 
its authority. "Wharves are constructed with the 
consent of the United States G-overnment at the 
expense of those to whom the state gives such 
authority. 

Wharves. A ship cannot lie alongside the 
natural shore, because when she has cargo on 
board she sinks deep into the water. For this 
reason, in some places, whai^es are built straight 
out so that when a ship is alongside her bow is 
toward the shore. These are called piers. Where 
piers can be built, much less "water front" is 
needed for the same number of ships than where 
piers are impracticable or impossible. The river 
current is too swift at New Orleans for piers, so 
there are wharves on the levees along the river. 



SECTION 2. SEAPORT AND RIVERPORT. 



Combined Seaport and Riverport. New 

Orleans has direct water comnmuicatiou as far 
as Pittsburg on the east, Chicago on the north, 
and Kansas City on the west, and deep-sea trade 
routes to all the principal ports of the world. 

Jetties. Though about 110 miles from the 
Gulf of Mexico, New Orleans is rightly consid- 
ered a seaport, for the largest ship afloat can 
enter the Mississippi and ascend beyond New 
Orleans. Until the second half of the nineteenth 



century, sea trade was interrupted by the forma- 
tion of sand bars at the mouth of the River. Silt, 
carried seaward by the strong current, was 
dropped when the waters of the Gulf retarded 
those of the river. Constant dredging was neces- 
sary to maintain a channel. This was expensive 
and inadequate. The commercial prosperity of 
the Mississippi Valley was hampered by this 
hindrance to navigation and several disasters 
occasioned actual loss. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



65 



To improve these conditions the jetties were 
constructed by Captain James B. Eads in tlie 
month of the River, called the South Pass. Con- 
gress appropriated $1,000,000 for the work, 
which was begun in 1875 and completed in 1878. 
The jetties are walls of willow mattresses 
weighted with stones and held in place by piling. 
Debris and silt brought down by the River, 
gradually filled in all crevices, making firm, 
tight walls. These walls are connected with the 
River banks by dams and run parallel with each 
other 1,000 feet apart. The current of the mighty 
River, thus reduced *o a much narrower channel, 
becomes swifter, and, instead of depositing sedi- 
ment across the mouth of the River, carries it 
far into the deep waters of the Gulf. The force 
of the waters scours and continually deepens the 
channel, maldng dredging unnecessary. 



SECTION 3. HARBOR. 



Size of Harbor. When vessels arrive at 
New Orleans, they can discharge their cargoes 
directly upon the wharves, as the depth of the 
water ranges from twenty to seventy feet along- 
side of the wharves and up to 170 feet in mid- 
stream. The narrowest portion of the River 
opposite New Orleans has a width of 2,000 feet. 
The distance of New Orleans from the open sea 
is an added protection to ships in the harbor, 
for the severe storms of the Gulf do not reach 
so far inland, 

Fresh Water. New Orleans possesses an ad- 
vantage over most seaports in the fact that it 
has a fresh -Water harbor. In salt water, the hulls 
of ships become covered with barnacles, which 
injure the ship and retard navigation. As the 
barnacles die and fall off in fresh water, a trip 
to such a harbor saves the expense of having the 
hull cleaned. 

Naval Station. The United States Govern- 
ment maintains a Naval Station on the west 
bank of the River below Algiers. Political differ- 
ences led to the abandonment and subsequent 
reestablishment of this station. The common 
opinion is that New Orleans, the nearest United 
States port to the Panama Canal and the first 
city from the mouth of the Mississippi River, is 
the most favorable location for a naval base in 
the southern part of the United States. The 
Naval Station is a place of deposit for supplies, 




66 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



a coaling station, and a repair plant. When the 
hull of a vessel has to be painted or repaired, 
the vessel must be raised out of the water. This 
is done by means of a dry dock. A dry dock is 
a large floating platform with walls along two 
sides, but open at either end. These walls con- 
tain compartments into which water is pumped 
to lower the platform below the water surface. 
The ship enters the dry dock when there is suf- 
ficient depth of water. The compartments are 
then emptied and the platform rises, lifting the 
vessel out of the water. The United States Gov- 
ernment dry dock at the Naval Station is capable 
of raising out of the water a vessel of 18,000 tons 
displacement. 

Immigration Station. Below the Naval Sta- 



tion is the United States luunigi'ation Station, 
which is the largest south of Philadelphia. Its 
purpose is to exclude from the country undesir- 
able aliens. Hence, all immigi'ants are sub- 
jected to physical and mental examinations, and 
are required to furnish proof of good character 
and means of support. An immigi'ant, who 
would probably become a burden to the com- 
munity, is returned to the country from which 
he came. 

Factories. As a result of transportation facil- 
ities to be had near the River, factories have 
been established along both sides of the harbor. 
Numerous canning factories, breweries, rice 
mills, cotton mills, oil and fertilizing plants, are 
situated on or near the River. 



SECTION 4. PUBLICLY OWNED WHARVES. 



State Ownership. The wharves at New Or- ovit, but this plan was not successful, because 



leans have, for the most part, always been public 
property, as, by the Constitution, are all land- 
ings in the state. Formerly, the wharves were 
under the control of the city and were leased 



the lessees did not keep them in good condition, 
and charged so exorbitantly for their use that 
business went elsewhere. 

The Board of Commissioners of the Port of 




DRY DOCKS AND UNITEO Sf ATES GOVERNMENT LANDINGS. 

« ' ' " ' — Courtesj' of Bpard of Ck)mniissioners of the Port of New 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



67 



New Orleans. When it was determined to stop 
the leasing system, all of the wharves were in 
very bad condition and much money was needed 
to make them tit for use. The City, restricted 
by the State Constitution, was in debt for the 
full amount allowed by law. For this and other 
reasons, a new body was formed, called legally 
the "Board of Commissioners of the Port of New 
Orleans," but spoken of always as "The Dock 
Board." 

Power of the Dock Board. To this Board 
was given by amendment to the Constitution 
and by act of the Legislature (Act No. 70 of 
1896), complete control of the wharves and 
harbor. It passes all ordinances for harbor pur- 
poses just as the City Council does for the city 
at large. 

Work of the Dock Board. The Dock Board 
took charge May 29, 1901. The members are 
appointed by tlie Grovemor and report to him. 
They serve without pay and elect all their offi- 
cers. The financing has been very successful, 
and there have been built nearly eight miles of 
excellent wharves, most of which are covered by 
steel sheds. 

Terminal Stations. In addition to these 
public wharves, there are several terminal 
stations controlled by different railroad lines. 
At Westwego, on the west side of the Eiver, 
the Texas and Pacific Railroad has two grain 
elevators and about three-quarters of a mile of 
wharfage. On the east side, at Stuyvesant 
Docks, the Illinois Central Railroad has 4,800 
feet of river front occupied by wharf, occupying 
the distance from Napoleon avenue to Louisiana 
avenue. This provides berth-room for ten 



ships at once. There are two grain elevators 
back of the wharf. The Louisville and Nash- 
ville Railroad has a berth for one ship at 
St. Joseph and Calliope streets. At the Amer- 
ican Sugar Refinery, there is room for three 
ships at once. 

Port Chalmette. The New Orleans Terminal 
Company, which is owned jointly by the South- 
ern Railway Company and the "Frisco" Rail- 
road Company, has Port Chalmette, about six 
miles below Canal street. There, a gi'ain elevator 
is maintained and about half a mile of wharf, 
besides berth-room for several pumping plants 
handling creosote and crude petroleum. 

"Frisco Slip." This company also owns, 
just below the American Sugar Refinery, what 
is known as the "Frisco Slip," a novel departure 
for the provision of wharfage and berths. Im- 
mense concrete walls form a huge rectangle 
extending back into the land and open on 
the River end. Fine freight sheds have been 
constructed along the three closed sides of the 
rectangle. Between the walls,' the bottom is 
dredged so that ships can lie against the con- 
crete walls. 

"Pumping Stations." In addition to these 
wharves, there are numerous "pumping sta- 
tions," where petroleum, oil (both crude and re- 
fined), creosote, and molasses are handled both 
in and out. 

Power of the Dock Board Over Private Ter- 
minals. Under the law, the Dock Board can take 
possession and control of any of these so-called 
"private terminals" at any time it thinks the 
public interest so requires, by paying a fair 
value for the improvements. 



SECTION 5. HANDLING CARGO. 



Laborers. The men, who make contracts 
with ships to load and unload them, are called 
stevedores. The laborers, who actually do 
the work, are called longshoremen. One of 
the advantages of New Orleans as a port is 
that the longshoremen do their work better 
than at any other port. They load more cargo 
on a ship and store it better than elsewhere, 
so that voyages from New Orleans are more 
profitable to the ship. 



Liquid Cargoes. The various pumping 
stations handle bulk cargoes of liquid freight 
with great economy and speed, especially oils, 
creosote, and molasses. A tank ship bringing a 
million and a quarter gallons of molasses has 
been discharged in sixty hours. 

Grain Elevators. The grain elevators are 
large structures, where quantities of grain are 
stored. By mechanical devices, the grain is 
rapidly arid economically loaded upon ships, 



68 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



Banana Cargoes. The liandliug of banana 
cargoes can hardly be improved upon. The 
system of mechanical conveyors taking bananas 
out of the ship and delivering them on the wharf, 



works so that nearly ten thousand bunches an 
hour can be taken out of a ship working four 
hatches. Cars are loaded at an average rate of 
one every four or five minutes. 



SECTION 6. PUBLIC BELT. 



Size of Modem Cargo. Not very many years 
ago, when ships were built of wood and a 1,000- 
ton ship was a large one, the wharf could easily 
hold all the cargo of a ship. Now, when a 3,000- 
ton ship is a small one, there is not room on any 
wharf for a whole cargo. Consequently, it has 
become necessary for the freight to be moved to 
and from the wharf quickly to prevent conges- 
tion when the ship is discharging, and loss of 
time when the ship is loading. 

Need for Promptness in Moving Cargo. As 
a comparatively small ship costs $500 a day, she 
loses money very rapidly if idle. If the ship 
owner is not to lose, the cost of her idle time has 
to be added to her freight charges. To over- 
come this disadvantage, it is necessary to have 



abundant means for moving cargo quickly to 
and from the wharves on the land side. 

The Public Belt Railroad. The municipally 
owned Pul)lic Belt Eailroad, which has been in 
operation since 1908, meets this necessity. The 
Public Belt tracks make a complete circuit of 
the city, connecting all trunk lines, all whai-ves 
and landings, and all important industries. Be- 
fore the operation of this system, switching 
charges ranged from eight dollars to twenty-two 
dollars per car. Now, engines, owned by the 
Public Belt Commission, carry goods from rail- 
road to railroad, from ship to railroad, from 
factory to ship or railroad, for the nominal sum 
of two dollars a car. This includes the hauling of 
the emj^ty car lief ore loading or after unloading, 




BANANA CONVEYORS. — Courtesy of Board of Commissioners of tlie Port of New Orleans. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



69 



for the Public Belt does not own the cars. Over 
15,000 cars a mouth are haudled by the Public 
Belt, and its business is constantly increasing. 

The route of the Public Belt is shown on the 
present-day map of the city. 

Necessity for Co-operation Between Dock 
Board and Public Belt. The necessity will be 
understood when it is remembered that a ship 
a little over 300 feet long, will carry, in round 
figures, about 6,000 tons of cargo, while one 500 
feet long will carry 15,000 tons. iSix thousand tons 
of cargo are, on an average, 400 car loads, while 
15,000 tons are 1,000 car loads. No wharf at a 
ship berth can hold much over 150 car loads at 
one time. The need, then, of having cars con- 
veniently placed and rapidly handled is ab- 
solute, if the ship is not to wait or^be carried to 
another berth for part of her cargo. The ex- 



pense of moving is several hundred dollars. 
Therefore, it will be a very great advantage 
when the ship can discharge and receive her 
cargo at one berth without any idle time. 

Necessity for Many Miles of Trackage to One 
Mile of River Front. As a freight car is about 
forty feet long, the thousand cars needed to 
carry a 15,000-ton cargo will occupy 40,000 feet 
of railroad track, or seven and one-half miles. 
The Illinois Central Eailroad, at Stuyvesant 
Docks, has twenty miles of trackage for one 
mile of wharfage, and is finding it necessary to 
put in additional tracks. To enable the Dock 
Board to get the greatest use out of its wharves, 
it is not only necessary to have perfect cooper- 
ation with the Public Belt Railroad, but it is 
also necessary for that organization to greatly 
increase its trackage. 



SECTION 7. WATERWAYS. 



Water Route of Mississippi River System. 

.One of the greatest advantages enjoyed by New 
Orleans is that the Mississippi Eiver and its 
tributaries furnish more than 16,000 miles of 
navigable waterway, extending into twenty-two 
of the forty-eight states of the Union, included 
between the AUeghanies on the east, the Rockies 
on the west, and Canada on the north. 
These are: 

Louisiana Wisconsin 

Mississippi Minnesota 

Alabama North Dakota 

Tennessee South Dakota 

Kentucky Montana 
West Virginia Nebraska 

Pennsylvania Iowa 

Ohio Missouri 

Indiana Arkansas 

Illinois Oklahoma 

Kansas Northern Texas 

Navigable rivers reach from 
New Orleans to Pittsburg on 
the east, to Chicago on the 
north, and to Kansas City on 
the west. The new impetus 
given to water-borne commerce 
by the improvement of water- 



ways, by the construction of modern inland 
water craft, and by the provision of suitable 
terminals, will make New Orleans a port of de- 
posit and distribution for all the states in the 
Mississippi Valley. 

Volume of Mississippi Valley Trade. Tlie 
commerce originating in these states is more 
than half the commerce of the Union. Notwith- 
standing their continual expansion, the rail- 




MAP SHOWING DRAINAGE SYSTEM OP MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum. 



70 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



roads cannot always handle it entirelj^ The 
history of railroad transportation shows that 
the volume doubles about every ten years. It 
is a matter of absolute necessity that the water- 
ways shall soon come into general use. Already 
the movement is on foot to build and operate 
economical barges and boats, so that freight can 
be handled to advantage and profit on these 
waterways. 

River Traffic. The volume of river traffic is 
not realized, because so few people see it. One 
towboat, now on the Mississippi, can bring from 
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in thirty days, twenty 
barges of coal of 1,000 tons each. This is equal 
to eighty trains of fifty cars each; nearly four 
miles of train. Such a large quantity of coal 
would not come as quickly by rail. 

Much sugar, cotton, rice and general produce 
are brought by river boats now. Thei'e are at 
present within the State of Louisiana nearly 
5,000 miles of navigable streams and canals con- 
nected with the port of New Orleans. 

During 1914 the arrivals were: 

Steamboats 1,640 

I Luggers and gasoline boats . . . 2,245 
Miscellaneous 298 

Total 4,183 

Steamboat Landing. Just below Canal street 
is the steamboat landing,where river boats of 
every size and description may be seen unload- 
ing their cargoes of sugar, rice, cotton, molasses, 
and general produce. On their return trips, mis- 
cellaneous cargoes are carried to different points 
at which the boats touch. 

LaJce Trade. The trade on Lake Pontchar- 
train, while small in comparison with the rail- 
road or sea trade, is by no means insignificant, 
either in volume or in its effect upon the cost of 
many necessities. Small boats, schooners, luggers, 
gasoline boats, and barges bring lumber, shingles, 
staves, cordwood, lathes, rosin, charcoal, sand, 
gravel, and shells, besides numerous other 
products of the countiy around the Lakes. 
There are, altogether, about 4,000 arrivals 
during the year, and the number is steadily in- 
creasing. When Lake Pontchartrain is connected 
with the Intercoastal Canal system, the volume 
and variety of the business will very greatly in- 
crease. The Lake trade finds its way into the 
commercial part of the city by Spanish Fort 
through Bayou St. John, which joins the Caron- 



delet or Old Basin Canal, and by West End 
through the New Basin Canal. 

The Old Basin Canal. The Carondelet or Old 
Basin Canal was cut in colonial times (See Chap. 
II.). It came under the control of the railroad 
companies and, as its efficiency was thereby 
greatly impaired, the state is suing for its con- 
trol. The Old Basin enjoys a monopoly of the 
Lake oyster trade because of its nearness to the 
markets. 

The New Basin Canal. In 1831, the New Or- 
leans Canal and Banking Company was char- 
tered for the purpose of constructing a naviga- 
tion canal above Poydras street from the city to 
Lake Pontchartrain. Despite the terrible death 
rate caiised by cholera and yellow fever during 
the year 1832, the work progressed rapidly, 
being completed at a much less cost than had 
been estimated. The Canal and Banking Com- 
pany were eventually separated. The canal, 
known as the New Basin Canal, was turned over 
to the state in 1838. The bank, however, has 
continued in business until the present day. The 
New Basin Canal is operated by a board and 
superintendent appointed by the Governor. This 
canal is in a prosperous condition, doing about 
three times as much business as the old; the 
plan to deepen the New Basin to eleven feet will, 
if carried out, further increase this advantage. 
Along the bank of the canal, the board main- 
tains a shell road, which has long been noted as 
one of the finest driveways in the country. 

Lake to the River Canals. Below New Or- 
leans, the Lake Borgne Canal extends from Lake 
BorgTie to the Mississippi River. While very 
useful, it has two disadvantages: it can be used 
only by small vessels and it is not under public 
control. A Lake to the River canal, to be pub- 
licly owned and operated, is now under consider- 
ation. It will extend from Lake Pontchartrain 
to the River and will be deeper than the Lake 
Borgne Canal. The preferred route is through 
the lower part of the city, where there will be 
less interruijtion to land traffic. The plan is to 
make the land on either side of the canal avail- 
able for factory sites, private warehouses, and 
other industries. 

Intercoastal Canal. The Intercoastal Canal, 
now under construction by the United States 
Government, will furnish an inland waterway 
from the Rio Grande to Boston. It will eliminate 
much of the loss from storms encountered by 
ships in the open gulf or sea. A plan has been 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



71 



approved for the Intercoastal Canal to join the 
Mississippi River at a point opposite New Or- 
leans. The canals now leaving the Mississippi 
near New Orleans will likely become parts of 
the system, as, wherever possible, lakes, streams, 
and existing canals are being utilized. This link- 
ing together of the waterways into one con- 
nected system will inevitably stimulate watei'- 
borne commerce. In Louisiana, many large 



streams will be intersected by this canal ; among 
them, the Atchafalaya, navigable for its entire 
course ; the Vermilion ; the Mermentau ; the Cal- 
casieu, on which is situated Lake Charles ; and the 
Sabine. It will open up for development the valu- 
able coast lands with their rich deposit of allu- 
vium; it will solve the problem of transportation 
through an isolated section, and it will assist in 
solving the drainage question in the marsh lands. 



SECTION 8. PORT IMPROVEMENT. 



Port Improvement Planned. Realizing the 
necessity for the rapid and economical handling 
of freight, the Dock Board, in 1913, employed 
eminent engineers to make a thorough investi- 
gation of conditions at New Orleans. All com- 
mercial organizations, shippers, and others were 
called upon to make known their needs and offer 
suggestions. The result has been the creation 
of a symmetrical plan for continuous develop- 
ment and improvement of the facilities of the 
port of New Orleans. 

Mechanical Devices. The Dock Board has 
begun extensive experiments to test and try out 
all kinds of machinery for the handling of 
various kinds of goods, so as to give quick 
service to ships, both loading and unloading. 

Warehouses. The Dock Board is having 



warehouses and sheds erected, where freight can 
be brought together for the ships or c|uickly 
transferred to the wharves to await distribution. 
In other words, it will make New Orleans a 
"port of deposit" instead of a mere transfer 
station. The erection of the great cotton ware- 
house has been the first step in this direction. 
Hei'etofore, the world 'ssm'plus has been handled 
and kept, for the most part, at Liverpool, and 
any brought back to America required the pay- 
ment of double freight charges. (See Chapter 
VIL, Section 1.) 

Similar facilities will be jorovided for 
lumber, coffee, and any other uniform com- 
modity, that can be brought to New Orleans, 
and even general merchandise may be so cared 
for in time. 



SECTION 9. RAILROAD COMMUNICATION. 



Western Communication, The 

cific Railroad, the Texas Pacific 
Louisiana Railway and 
Navigation Company, 
and the New Orleans, 
Texas, and Mexico Rail- 
road Company, now fur- 
nish the medium of traffic 
with the west side of the 
Mississippi River. Re- 
cently-made arrange- 
ments will also number 
the Iron Mountain-Mis- 
souri Pacific System 
amongst the west bank 
lines. These give two 



Southern Pa- 
Railroad, the 




through routes to the Pacific coast, and all the 
states between, besides reaching all the cities 
west of the Mississippi 
River as far as St. Louis 
and Omaha. 

Eastern Communica- 
tion. On the east, the 
Louisville and Nashville, 
the New Orleans and 
North Eastern, the Illi- 
nois Central, the Yazoo 
and Mississippi Valley, 
;iud the New Orleans 
Grreat Northern, directly 
or indirectly give rail- 
road connection with all 



FERRYING OARS ACROSS THE RIVER. 

— Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. R, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



the United States. The Illinois Central has a 
double track to Chicago and reaches, with con- 
necting branch lines, Birmingham, Louisville, 
Indianapolis, Omaha, and Sioux City. 

Extent of Systems. These roads each have, 
or belong to systems that have, thousands of 



miles of track, and nearly all the larger cities 
may be reached over the lines of more than 
one — as, for instance, the Illinois Central, the 
New Orleans and North Eastern, and the Louis- 
ville and Nashville, run through sleeping cars to 
New York, as well as through freights. 



SECTION 10. FOREIGN TRADE. 



Lack of American Ships. The sea trade of 
New Orleans, like that of all other American 
ports, except Baltimore and Philadelphia, is 
carried for the most part in foreign shijos. At 
Baltimore and Philadelphia, the coastwise trade 
exceeds the foreign trade and, as no foreign 
ships are, under our laws, permitted to carry 
goods or passengers from one port to another, 
those ports have more American than foreign 
ships. 

Ships Under American Register. Hereto- 
fore, the only regular sailings of American ships 
to foreign ports, were the Southern Pacific lines 
to Havana. Under the laws passed in Septem- 
ber, 1914, the United Fruit Company is regis- 
tering as American the ships which were 
formerly under the British flag. 

Southern Pacific Lines. The Southern Pa- 
cific operates two steamship lines from New Or- 
leans, namely, to Havana, Cuba, and New York 
City. The ships carry general merchandise to 
Havana and bring return cargoes of raw sugar, 
pineapples, etc. ; general cargoes, including some 
cotton, are taken to New York, and general mer- 
chandise brought back. 

The United Fruit Company's Lines. These 
ships visit Havana and Central American ports, 
taking cargoes of provisions, machinery, lumber, 
and structural iron, bringing from all the coun- 
tries on the Caribbean Sea, bananas, chicle for 
chewing gum, rubber, coffee, and sarsaparilla. 

Ports. The principal ports visited by these 
ships are Colon and Bocas del Toro in Panama, 
Port Limon in Costa Rica, Cortez in Honduras, 
Barrios in Guatemala, and Belize in British Hon- 
duras. The smaller independent fruit companies 
visit also Bluefields and Cape Gracias, Nica- 
ragua, Ceiba, Honduras, Fontera, Mexico, and 
some lesser ports in these countries. 

Trade With Mexico. The trade with Mexico 
is liy British ships chartered to a Mexican Com- 



pany, bringing sisal from Progresso and taking 
back corn, provisions, and lumber. A Mexican 
Company runs Mexican ships from Vera Cruz 
and Tampico to New Orleans, bringing coffee, 
hats, and miscellaneous merchandise and taking 
down provisions, lumber, and machinery of all 
sorts, as well as railroad supplies and material. 
Tank ships of all nations bi'ing crude petroleum 
from Tampico and Tuxpan. 

Trans-Oceanic Lines. The trans-Atlantic 
trade is wholly in foreign ships, chiefly British. 
There are seven British lines, two German, two 
Spanish, one French, two Dutch, and one Danish 
sailing regularly. An American line and a Jap- 
anese line will run ships to the Pacific through 
the Panama Canal. The New York and Porto 
Rico line has a weekly ship to Porto Rico. Be- 
sides these regTilar lines, the port is visited by 
many "tramp" ships, mostly British, chartered 
by local ship agents to carry cargoes princi]ially 
to British ports. 

Ports of Trans -Atlantic Trade. The chief 
ports to which ships from New Orleans run, are 
Belfast, Ireland; Glasgow, Scotland; Liverpool, 
Manchester, and London, England; Rotterdam, 
Holland; Copenhagen, Denmark; Antwerp, Bel- 
gium; Havre and Marseilles, France; Bilboa, 
Cadiz, and Barcelona, Spain; Genoa, Florence, 
Naples, and Palermo, Italy; Trieste, Austria; 
and Hamburg and Bremen, Germany. 

Exports. In 1914, New Orleans was the sec- 
ond port of tite United States, being outranked 
only by New York. The combined value of exports 
and imports aggregated $283,938,066. Practically 
everj^ state in the Mississippi Valley sends some 
products through the port of New Orleans. Corn, 
wheat, and other grains come from the Central 
States. The Southern States, especially Louisi- 
ana, Mississippi, and Arkansas, send cotton and 
cotton seed products, oil cake and meal. Okla- 
homa and Texas supply some cotton, but the bulk 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



73 



of the crop from those states is shipped from Gal- 
veston. As a lumber port, New Orleans stands 
first among American cities. In the heart of the 
cypress region, it exports both lumber and man- 
ufactured articles. The Southern yellow pine 
and naval stores obtained from it, pass through 
New Orleans en route to points in Europe, Asia, 
Africa, and South America. Nearly all the 
1 staves used in harvesting the wine crop of 
'.Europe are supplied by this port, while quan- 
tities of oak, walnut, and poplar, as logs or 
lumber, are distributed to all parts of the world. 
Linseed i^roducts from Minnesota; tobacco from 
Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana; iron 
frtm Alabama; farm machinery from Illinois, 
Indiana, Ohio, and Wisconsin; boots, shoes, and 
mi&cellaneous products from the vast area con- 
nec\ed with New Orleans by a network of water- 
wayt and railroads, swell the export trade. 

Inports. The principal articles of import 
are e\)ffee, sugar, sisal grass, burlaps, bananas, 
nitrat? of soda, mineral oil, creosote oil, mahog- 
any l(tes, drugs and chemicals, fertilizers, mo- 
lasses, ferro-manganese, sugar beet seed, fruits 
and nufe, manufactures of fibers, and manufac- 
tures ofiiron and steel. Each of these items ex- 
ceeds a \alf million dollars in value. From far- 



away India, British ships bring burlaps, which 
is fourth in value on the list- of imports, and a 
coarser kind of bagging made from the pieces 
of jute unfit for burlaps. British liners carry 
salt, ferro-manganese, which is used in making 
Bessemer steel, and textiles from the world- 
famed looms of England, besides manufactured 
articles of every description. Fuller's earth, 
carried sometimes as ballast, is brought in great 
quantities; it is used for bleaching and cleaning 
cloth and for filtering oils. Most of it goes to 
the cottonseed and linseed oil mills. One of the 
curious paradoxes of commerce is, that the same 
British ship that brought 8,000 sacks of salt 
from Liverpool, carried to Liverpool on her re- 
turn voyage 5,000 sacks of salt from Louisiana 
mines. Notwithstanding the unlimited resources 
for food production within the United States, 
many articles for table use are brought from 
European ports. Unexcelled wines and liquors, 
the secret of whose manufacture is jealously 
guarded ; cheese, unequaled by American makes, 
from France, Holland, and Switzerland; olive 
oil from southern France, Italy, and Spain ; cur- 
rants from Patras, Greece; lemons and even 
garlic all the way from Italy, are unloaded upon 
New Orleans wharves. Diverse minerals, such 







74 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



as marble from Italy, magnesite from Austria, 
and ferro-manganese from Luxemburg, are im- 
ported. Every kind of manufactured article — 
fine china, porcelains, and toilet articles from 
France; plate glass and baskets from Belgium; 
toys and trinkets of every description from 
Germany, tbe land of ingenuity, are brought to 
New Orleans to be distributed over many states. 
Triangular South American Trade. The 
value of coffee far exceeds that of any other im- 
port, being over thirty-two and a half million 
dollars. Three British lines bring nine-tenths 
of the coffee imported to New Orleans from 
Brazil. Rio de Janeiro and Santos are the ports 
of origin. These same ships take cargoes from 
New Orleans to European ports, and there get 
cargoes for Argentina and Brazil, making a tri- 
angular run always in the same direction. It 
is a fact that great quantities of American goods 
find their way to South America through Euro- 
pean ports. Though several efforts have been 
made to establish direct lines from New Orleans 
to Brazil and Argentina, it has so far been found 
that the existing European lines, especially the 
■British, were too strongly established in that 
trade for the new, weak lines to break into it. 



While cargoes from New Orleans could easily be 
obtained, no return freight could be had. 

Cuban Trade. Great quantities of the world- 
famed Havana cigars are brought from Cuba to 
New Orleans, not for local consumption alone, 
but to be forwarded to all parts of the world. 
From Cuba, also, comes the raw sugar by hun- 
dred thousand tons for refineries in New Or- 
leans and elsewhere. Other imports from Cuba 
are thousands of crates of pineapples, gi'ape- 
fruit, oranges, and other tropical fruits. Al- 
ligator pears, and many other vegetables, sucli 
as tomatoes, okra, egg-plants, peppers, and tie 
like, are shipped north by the carload before any 
part of the United States can produce them. 

Panama Canal. The Panama Canal opens 
the door of the Pacific Ocean to the port of Lew 
Orleans, as the nearest port of the United States 
to the Atlantic end of the canal. The oppor- 
tunity is boundless in its possibilities. The 
trade of the west coast of South America, of 
much of the west coast of North Ame'ica, a 
great part of the trade of Australia, Japm, and 
China, the Philippine Islands, and j^arther 
India, as well as the East Indian Islaids, will 
pass through New Orleans. 



SECTION 11. THE UNITED STATES CUSTOM SERVICE. 



The Custom House. The United States Gov- 
ernment collects annually about three hundred 
million dollars in tariff, or what are called Cus- 
toms Duties. To look after this business, as well 
as to attend to all the business in connection 
with boats and shipping, it built the Custom 
House in Canal street, 
between Decatur and 
North Peters streets. It 
is a noble granite struc- 
ture of gi'aceful and dig- 
nified proportions. The 
large hall in the center 
of the building, com- 
monly called the Marble 
Hall, is one of the hand- 
somest rooms in the 
country. The walls are 
of brick, faced with 
granite, and in parts, on 
the inside, with marble. 



They are very massive and are fasteifid together 
with heavy bars of iron built iato tin brickwork. 
The building has settled, and will jTobably con- 
tinue to do so, but the constructionis so fine and 
it is so well balanced that no danage has been 
done by what settling has taken place. It was 
finished about 1880. 
General Beauregard at 
one tinti had charge of 
the wok as an officer of 
the Eigineer Corps of 
the Amy. 

Duies of Collector. 
The Custom House is in 
char,e of the Collector 
of 'Customs, who has 
contol, not only of the 
pot of New Orleans, 
br. of all the State of 
L'uisiana and Western 

—Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. K. MSSlSSippi. All SllipS 




THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



75 



that arrive, are required to report at the Custom 
House to the Collector and file a list of what 
they have on board, called a "manifest." This 
is called "entering." A ship is not allowed to 
leave port without filing a manifest of what she 
carries away, and getting permission from the 
Collector. This is called "clearing." 

Duties of Surveyor ajid His Officers. The 
Collector has under him an officer called the Sur- 
veyor, whose duty it is to look after ships and 
everything pertaining to the government rev- 
enue outside the Custom House. The Surveyor 
has under him Inspectors, who do the actual 
work of executing the law and the orders of the 
Collector. Every ship that comes in is in charge 
of an inspector, who makes a return of every- 
thing she brings in. On that return, the duties 
are settled and paid. No man can get his own 
freight until he gets a "permit" from the Col- 



lector after having deposited cash for the duties. 
No ship is allowed to discharge freight, unless 
there is an inspector present. The Customs 
Inspectors also search the baggage of passen- 
gers coming from foreign countries. In fact, 
nothing can come lawfully from any country 
without passing under the supervision of a 
Customs Inspector. There are forty-five of 
these officers at New Oi'leans, and over thirty 
million dollars of duties are collected on their 
returns. 



TOPICS: Section 1, Shipping; Section 2, Seaport and River- 
port; Section 3, Harbor; Section 4, Publicly Owned 
Wharves; Section 5, Handling Cargo; Section 6, Public 
Belt; Section 7, Waterways; Section 8, Port Improve- 
ment; Section 9, Railroad Communication; Section 10, 
Foreign Trade; Section 11, The United States Customs 
Service. 

REFERENCES: Standard History of New Orleans, Eightor; 
Reports of the Board of Commissioners of the Port of 
New Orleans. 




, .^lA 



PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE HARBOR. 

— Courtesy of Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans. 



CHAPTER VII. 



Industries. 



SECTION 1. COTTON. 



The Cotton Plant. Cotton belongs to the 
mallow family, which includes not only cotton, 
but also okra, hollyhocks, and a number of 
common weeds. There are three main kinds of 
cotton grown in the United States, namely, 
short stajDle, long staple, and Sea Island cotton. 
The four leading cotton parishes of Louisiana 
are Tensas, Point Coupee, St. Landry, and More- 
house. Cotton, however, can be grown in every 
parish. By scientific methods of planting and 
cultivation, the farmer now makes his cotton 
crop in eight or nine months, where formerly it 
took a year. 

Every nation depends largely upon 

the southern part of the United States 
for cotton. It is the crop which has a 
staple value in the markets of the world, 
its bill of lading being iini vers ally 
negotiable. The powerful influence it 
exerts on trade, its absorjotion both as 
product and manufacture, place it high 
in the scale of commercial economics. 

The New Orleans Cotton Market. 
New Orleans has always been the largest 
market for the sale of cotton. Up to a 
recent date, it ranked first in point of re- 
ceipts in the United States. The increase 
in the Texas crop and the drastic regula- 
tions of the Texas Railroad Commission 
have forced the bulk of the crop of that 
State through the port of Galveston, 
making that place the largest cotton re- 
ceiver. The source of the cotton supply 
of New Orleans is principally from Ar- 
kansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. A 
small part of the products of Texas, 
Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama finds 
a market through this port. An immense 
cotton warehouse has been erected, and 
New Orleans has great prospects of be- 
coming the center for the storage of 
cotton, subject to the wants of the spin- 
ners in America and abroad. 



The New Orleans Cotton Exchange. The 
Cotton Exchange, whose membership and visit- 
ing membership embraces between .500 and 600, 
ranks as one of the three great contract markets 
in the world. Through this mediimi, a large per- 
centage of the cotton crop of the United States, 
marketed through various ports, is controlled 
by the merchants of the Crescent City. The 
business of the membership of the New Orleans 
Cotton Exchange embraces the filling of orders 
from every state in the Cotton Belt and the 
cotton manufacturing centers of the North, East, 
and West, as well as all the great markets and 




NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGK. 

— Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. R. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



77 



the manufacturing centers of Europe. The daily 
transactions on the floor of the local Exchange 
reflect, and, in a great measure, govern, the 
world's sentiment in reference to the values of 
the great southern staple. 

The Advantage of Cotton Futures. The 
system of dealing in "cotton futures" gives 
manufacturers of small means equal advantages 
with those possessing large capital in selling 
their product far into the future. Without the 
aid of the "futures" system, it is very evident 
that manufacturers having small or moderate 
capital, would be at a very serious disad- 
vantage. 

Manufacture of Cotton. The first successful 
venture in cotton manufacturing was made in 
1864, by N. L. Lane. The Lane Mills have grad- 
ually increased in size. They still retain the 
name of their foimder, although they have passed 
into other hands. These mills are now equipped 
with modern machinery, and the most improved 
methods are used in the manufacture of colored 
cotton goods. 

The Maginnis Mill No. 1 was established in 
1881, and a second, called No. 2, in 1888. These 
mills, which were closed in 1910, and reopened 
July, 1914, make sheeting, drill, duck, and are 
specializing in cement bags. 

Although there have been no large cotton 
mills established in New Orleans in the last 
twenty years, there are 
a number of knitting 
mills for the manufac- 
ture of hosiery, jerseys, 
knitted underwear, twine, 
carpet yarns, and reeler 
yarns. 

Cotton Seed Oil — Cake. 
The cottou seed oil industry 
depends upon the state's 
annual production of cot- 
ton. The use of cotton 
seed is entering into the 
economic life of the people, 
and the by-products manu- 
factured from cotton seed, 
have added millions to the 
productive value of, the 
cotton lands of Lou- 
isiana. 

The Cotton Warehouse. 
Realizing the necessity of 
modern terminal and stor- 



age facilities, the Board of Port Commissioners 
has had the huge cotton warehouse erected, cover- 
ing an area of 100 aci'es. The annual capacity of 
the warehouse is at present 2,000,000 bales, which 
will ultimately be increased to 4,000,000 bales. 
Fire insurance companies have agreed to a rate 
of fifteen cents per $100 on all cotton stored in 
these reinforced concrete structures. Some of 
the most up-to-date features of the new ware- 
house are the automatic weighing machines, 
electric trucks, internal concrete runways, and 
"bale-puller"; this last relieves the strain of 
the pile from the bale wanted, and then with- 
draws the bale without disturbing the pile. The 
warehouse will issue a receipt for a bale of 
cotton, which will be recognized and accepted 
for full value anywhere in the world. Thus, New 
Orleans may become a point of deposit for the 
world's surplus cotton, as well as the point of 
export for a large part "of the cotton crop of the 
United States. 

In connection with this enterprise, another 
great piece of engineering work is to be accom- 
plished, namely, the reclamation of 250 feet 
from the Mississippi River in front of the cotton 
Avarehouse. This work will be both difficult and 
costly; but the acreage reclaiiued and the ad- 



i COTTON 




— Courtesy of Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans, 



78 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



vantage of having the warehouse along the deep 
water channel of the river, will more than offset 
the work and exj^ense. 

Note. — The Mexican boll-weevil came into Texas from 
Mexico about 1892, and has since spread throughout most of 
the cotton-growing sections of the adjoining states. The 
most important step in fighting the boll-weevil is to hasten 
the maturity of the cotton plant, so that the bolls formed 
early in the summer are well grown by the time weevils be- 
come very numerous, which is about the middle of July or 



the first of August. The boll-weevil does not do much damage 
to well-grown bolls, while there is an abundance of squares 
in which eggs have not already been laid. Safety lies in 
diversified farming and intensive cotton culture. The history 
of the Whitney cotton gin is familiar to every boy and girl. 
However, few are aware that to Louisiana belongs the intro- 
duction of the first cotton gin in 1742 by M. Dubreuil. 

TOPICS: The Cotton Plant; New Orleans Cotton Eeceipts; 
Financing the Cotton Crop; Manufactures. 

BEFEBENCES: Duggar's Agriculture for Southern Schools; 
Leigh's Book on Cotton; United States Census, 1910. 



SECTION 2. CORN. 



Coi-n belongs to the grass family. Some of 
the plants to which it is related are true grasses, 
as sugar cane and rice. Corn differs from most 
of its relatives, in having both a tassel and an 
ear, and in having these located on different 
parts of the plant. 

Races of Corn. There are only a few races 
of corn, the most important being pop, sweet, 
dent (or common), and flint. In each race, there 
are many varieties. Corn is planted either in 
elevated ridges or beds, in depressions or water 
furrows, or in level gi'ound, according to the soil 
and the farmer's judgment. 

Corn Crop of Louisiana. Ijouisiana is fast 
taking a ranking place among the leading corn 
states. The yield is increasing steadily, due to 
fertilization, deep plowing, adequate cultiva- 
tion, and systematic rotation of crops. Splen- 
did work is being accomplished by the Boys' 
Corn Clubs, an important branch of the Farm 
Demonstration Bureau, which is under the direc- 
tion of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture. Louisiana corn is harvested at a time 
of continued sunshine, and, if dried in a way to 
preclude deterioration, is preferred by the mar- 
kets at home and abroad. 

According to the last report of the Commis- 
sioner of AgTicultiu-e, cotton, without counting 
its seed, still leads, with corn a close second. 
The corn product of 1,963,698 acres amounted to 
34,087,062 bushels valued at $21,063,484. The 



parish of St. Landry leads with 100,000 acres in 
cultivation, valued at $1,200,000. 

TOPICS: Corn Family; Louisiana as a Corn State. 

BEFEBENCES: Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture 
for February, 1914. 




CORN CROP ON RECLAIMED If-^ND, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 
SECTION 3. SUGAR. 



79 



Sugar Cane. Sugar cane belongs to the grass 
family. Under the tube-like lower portions of 
each leaf are buds, one at each joint. These serve 
instead of seed to multiply the plant. Sugar cane 
first grew in the countries warmer than the 
Southern States, but has greatly changed its 
habit of growth as it has been carried north- 
ward. In the tropics, it continues to grow fifteen 
months or more, before being cut. 

Sugar cane was introduced into Louisiana 
from San Domingo in 1751, by the Jesuit 
Fathers. The cane grew well, but all attempts 
to manufacture sugar failed, until 1791, when 
Don Antonio Mendez succeeded in extracting 
sugar from cane. Three years later, Etienne de 
Bore made such a large crop of sugar that many 
were induced to go into the industry. 

Preparation and Cultivation. In Louisiana, 
a field to be planted in cane the next year, is 
planted the preceding year in corn, with cow 
peas sown thickly among the corn. The entire 
growth of cow peas is turned under by the use 
of immense plows. This enriches the land by 
furnishing vegetable matter and nitrogen. Sugar 
cane is then grown on that field for two or three 
years. A good average 
yield in Louisiana is 
twenty to thirty tons of 
cane per acre. The tops 
cannot live through the 
winter, but the stubble 
and roots remain alive 
and furnish a supply for 
a second and, some- 
times, for a third crop. 
Planting, therefore, is 
necessary only every 
second or third year. 
The sugar belt em- 
braces twenty-four par- 
ishes, St. Mary leading. 

Sugar Maidng. As 
the cane is cut, it is 
loaded by mechanical 
loaders into wagons of 
about two tons ca- 
pacity. These wagons 
are driven to the hoist- 
ing derricks, which load 
the cane on the ears. At 



the sugar house, these discharge the cane into a 
patented carrier. The cane is passed through 
large mills which crush it, and thus separate the 
juice from the woody matter or bagasse. From 
here, the juice runs through the sulphur tanks, 
where sulphur dioxide is absorbed. The 
bagasse is carried to the furnaces. IIere,_ it is 
mixed with a little crude oil and furnishes the 
source of fuel for operating the mill. After the 
juice is sulphured, it is pumped to other tanks, 
where lime in solution is added and the juice 
brought to a boil. The clear part is drawn off 
to settling tanks. The precipitate or solid sub- 
stance which has been deposited, is sent through 
the filter press, separating the juice from what 
is called the filter presscake or solid matter. (A 
filter press is a cast iron frame with heavy 
sheets, through which the juice is pumped.) The 
juice remains in the settling tank for half an 
hour; then, all the clear juice is drawn off and 
mi'xed with juice from the filter press. The 
whole is passed through the evaporators, oper- 
ated under vacuum, to make sugar house syrup. 
This syrup is then boiled in the pan to make 
"massecuite," or sugar crystallized. This is 




A CANE CROP ON RECLAIMED LAND. 



80 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



run through the centrifugals, which separate 
the sugar and molasses. Generally, the sugar is 
washed with water before it is taken out of the 
centrifugals. The molasses and wash-waters are 
reboiled to make second sugar. The molasses in 
this is used for stock-feed and is also sold to 
distilleries. 

Refining Process. Sugar is mixed with water 
to make a thick magma, when it is run into the 
centrifugals. It is again washed with water to 
remove the outer coating of the crystals. The 
remaining part of the sugar is dissolved sep- 
arately, reclaritied, and put through the bone 
black filter. The liquor is again evaporated 
into syrup, and finally into "massecuite." When 
it comes out of the centrifugals, it is put through 
the driers and granulators. 

LouisiaJia Sugar Crop. Sugar made in Lou- 
isiana from the crop of cane harvested in 1913- 
'14, according to an enumeration just completed 
by the Bureau of Statistics, amounted to 480,- 
346,707 pounds, valued at $16,888,509. 

The Chalmette Sugar Refinery. This refinery 
is a mighty tribute to the greatness of the sugar 
industry of Louisiana. It represents the very 
best in steel and concrete construction engineer- 
ing. The steel docks permit three large ships 



to discharge their cargoes simultaneously. The 
shipping facilities permit the loading and un- 
loading of fifty cars at the same time. The filter- 
ing plant has a capacity. of 6,000,000 gallons a 
day; the huge boiler plant generates 11,000 
horse-power, and is fitted with gravity coal bins 
of 7,000 tons capacity and with mechanical 
stokers. The cooperage is one of the largest in 
the South. The machinery is electrically driven. 

The refinery has an annual capacity of 
600,000 tons. More than one-third is Louisiana 
sugar, the remainder being imported from Cuba, 
Java, and the Hawaiian Islands. 

The Sugar Experiment Station. The Sugar 
Experiment Station was moved about thirtj^ 
years ago from Kenner to its present location 
in Audubon Park. The station experiments in 
the field, laboratory, and sugar house, publish- 
ing its results in bulletins. It has aided in every 
development of the sugar industry. 

The Sugar Exchange of New Orleans is the 
place where buyers and sellers meet daily for the 
purpose of trade in sugar, syrup and molasses. 

TOPICS: Introduction into Louisiana; Preparation and 
Cultivation; Sugar-Malfing; Refining Process; Louisiana 
Sugar Crop. 

REFERENCES: United Stfttes Census Reports; Crop Re- 
ports of 1914. 




tllALMETTB SUGAR REFINERY. 



-Courtesy of BoarJ of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 
SECTION 4. RICE. 



81 



The History of Rice. The history of Asia from 
the beginning records rice as a staple human food 
product. When we refer to the intrinsic value 
of rice as a human edible, we have the emphasis 
of centuries of use and the development of the 
Asiatic peoples, esioecially the Japanese, for 
proof. The first rice planted in the United 
States was in Virginia, in 1647. The experiment 
was a failure, this state being too far north. In 
1694, a vessel from 
Madagascar, owing 
to a storm, entered 
Charleston Harbor. 
The captain gave a 
planter some rough 
rice, from which a 
successful crop was 
grown and the seed 
from this was dis- 
tributed. 

Rice in Lou- 
isiana. Kice was 
first raised in Lou- 
isiana in an attempt 
to offset the ill ef- 
fects experienced 
by the wanton de- 
struction of the 
Carolina industry. 
Owing to the responsive soil, rice soon became a 
recognized staple in Louisiana. 

When rail lines were built through the 
prairie parishes of Southwest Louisiana, the 
Western farmers (about 1884) made their ad- 
vent into that section. Primitive methods of 
sowing, binding, and threshing, soon gave way 
to modern mechanical appliances. The most 
important era of the rice industry was in 1896 — 




the year in which the irrigation canal was in- 
troduced. In commencing operations, a canal 
company first makes a thorough topographical 
survey, which makes possible the construction 
of the main canal and laterals in such a manner 
as to allow the water to go on at the higher 
levels, and inundate by gravitation the lower 
levels. All the rice in Louisiana is irrigated by 
pumping, the exception being the alluvial sec- 
tions where the 
^^ water is syphoned 
^ ^} '" '' • from the river. 

,"■.. Rice Culture. The 

ground is well 
lu'oken with riding 
|)lows and pulver- 
ized with large har- 
rows. As a rule, the 
seed is planted by 
drills, although in 
the alluvial lands a 
great many grow- 
ers cling to the old 
method of broad- 
casting. Unless the 
ground is very wet, 
water is turned on 
immediately after 
seeding. It is turned 
off again until the grain has attained a growth of 
four or five inches, when it is reflooded to about 
the same depth until a week before harvesting. 
This commences about the latter part of July, 
according to locality, and extends to about the 
fifteenth of November. After being threshed, 
the rice is either sold in the field to the agent 
of a mill, or consigned to one of the central rice- 
milling points. About one-third of the milling 



IRRIGATION PUMPING PLANT IN WEST LOUISIANA. 

— ^Courtesy of S. Locke Breaus. 




PUEPAEATION OF SOIL FOB KICE PLANTING IN WEST LOUISIANA. 



— Courtesy of S. Locke Breaux. 



82 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



crop is disposed of througli the factor on the 
floor of the New Orleans Board of Ti'ade, which 
organization controls, to a great extent, the 
prices of rice for the entire country. Most of 
the rice disposed of on the Board of Trade is 
sold to local mills, the balance being shipped to 
the South Atlantic markets. Eice find its chief 
use as a staple article of food. Ten per cent of 
the Louisiana crop is used in the manufacture 
of beer. 

Description of a New Orleans Rice Mill. The 
rice is received at the warehouse in sacks weigh- 
ing 180 pounds each. These sacks are unloaded 
from the cars and elevated into bins by belt-con- 
veying machinery. From the bins, the rice is 
run through the separators, which remove all 
f oreig-n substances. It is then fed into the center 
of the hulling stones, where it is revolved at the 
rate of 250 revolutions a minute, and, through 
centrifugal action, the rice is forced through the 
perforated ends of the upper and lower stones. 
This process removes the hull from the grain. 



It is then passed through the fanning machines, 
which remove the hull by suction. A separator 
then turns back the unhulled grains to another 
set of stones, for about twenty-five per cent of 
the rice is still unhulled. The huller is a cylin- 
der within a metal case, which removes the oily 
cuticle that covers the grain. This oily cuticle 
is known as the rice bran. From here, the rice 
goes to the brushes, which are upright cylinders 
covered with leather. These polish the rice 
against a wire screen, leaving behind a white 
powder known as rice polish. The polishing 
drum, through friction, gives the highly polished 
appearance which is found in nearly all finished 
rice. The rice is then put into the clean rice 
separators, where the broken grains are sep- 
arated from the whole grains and the various 
commercial grades packed. 

TOPICS: The History of Eice; Eiee in Louisiana; Eice 
Culture; A Description of a New Orleans Eice Mill. 

REFERENCES: Bureau of Plant Industry of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



SECTION 5. TOBACCO. 



The crop report for the year 1913- '14 shows 
that 600 acres of tobacco, producing 250,000 
poimds, valued at $50,000, were planted in the 
jmrish of St. James. The same report also shows 
that a few acres were planted in the parish of 
Evangeline, and that Ouachita parish raised 
some tobacco for home use. 

The Perique Tobacco. The Perique tobacco 
was first grown many years before the Civil "War 
by an Acadian whose name the tobacco now 
bears. This industry has been kept up continu- 
ously by the lineal descendants of Perique, and 
is cultivated in the same manner as any other 
sun tobacco. It is sown in the early part of 
January, replanted in March or April, the crop 
being harvested in the latter part of June, or 
the beginning of July. After harvesting, the 
tobacco is hung in sheds to dry. It is then 
stripped and placed in presses until the follow- 
ing March or April, when it is ready for the 
market. Sometimes it is not sold until three or 
four years old, as it improves with age. Perique 
finds its chief use as a seasoner for mixtures, it 
being an exceedingly strong tobacco. It is 



shipped to all American tobacco markets, to 
Canada, and to England. 

Manufacture of Tobacco in New Orleans. The 
first factory was established in 1857. New Or- 
leans has always handled a large part of the 
cigarette business of the South. At present, 
there are two immense jDlants operating here. 
The value of the output of cigars, cigarettes, 
and tobacco in 1913- '14 was $6,301,725. New 
Orleans' is a meeting point of the Havana and 
the domestic tobacco from the tobacco-growing 
states of Kentucky and Ohio. The United 
States Weather Bureau records show that the 
climatology of New Orleans is most favorable to 
the working of tobacco ; its atmospheric moisture 
is almost equable throughout the year, the 
changes being gradual. New Orleans, because 
of its very successful factories, is widely known 
as a cigar center. 



TOPICS: Annual Production; The Perique Tobacco; Manu- 
factured Tobacco. 

REFERENCES: Agricultural Eeport for 1913; Pamphlets 
of the Association of Commerce. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



83 



SECTION 6. LUMBER. 



Louisiana's Lumber. Louisiana is the second 
largest lumber-producing state in the Union 
(Washington, first), the annual value of the 
product being over $50,000,000. Including by- 
products, the annual value exceeds $60,000,000. 
The state has standing timber to the amount of 
120 billion feet, valued at $600,000,000. It also 
has over 5,500,000 acres" in cut-over lands, eighty 
per cent of which is now suited for agriculture. 
Yellow pine occurs in thirty-one parishes. In 
the middle and southern sections are the im- 
mense forests of long leaf pine which furnish a 
large industiy for the adjoining states. The 
short leaf pine is found in the northern section, 
in the region of the oak uplands. Almost every 
known variety of oak, hickory, gum, pecan, 
cotton-wood, ash, magnolia, maple, and the 
largest variety of the elm are found. The state 
has about 154 species of trees within its borders. 

Cypress. In Egypt, long before Abraham 
climbed the desert mountains that separate 
Chaldea from Canaan, cypicss was the ■wood of 
royalty. Gropher wood, 
from which Noah builded 
the Ark, was no other than 
cypress. In polytheistic 
Greece, in pagan Eome, 
and in Egypt, the wood 
of the cypress tree was 
treated with religious ven 
eration, and from it were 
carved the hideous faces 
of their heathen gods. In 
point of quality and value, 
the unparalleled forests of 
cypress surpass all others, 
and Louisiana possesses 
75 per cent of this forest 
product of the United 
States. CjToress is adapt- 
able to many uses in build- 
ing, inside and outside, 
having wonderful powers 
of duration. In all alluvial 
deposits of Louisiana, per- 
fect cypress logs, hundreds 
of feet below the present 
level of the Gulf of Mexico, 
have been uncovered. In 
1810, pipes for the water 
system were made of 




hewn cypress trees. Forces of the present 
Sewerage and Water Board have, in excavating, 
found these pipes iti a splendid state of reserva- 
tion. 

Millions of dollars have been invested in the 
timber resources. The movement for the utiliza- 
tion of waste accumulating in the manufacture 
of lumber, is destined to create an immense and 
important industry. Unregulated methods of 
lumbering and the turpentine industry are the 
chief causes of this waste, which can be used in 
the manufacture of charcoal and of paper. 

Lumber Industry in New Orleans. A large 
proportion of the lumber bought and sold in the 
New Orleans market is used for building by fac- 
tories for making boxes, furniture, coffins, doors, 
sash, blinds, and similar manufactured products. 
Many of .these factory products are shipped to 
the surrounding territory and to foreign coun- 
tries. The lumber that is shipped to New Or- 
leans to be treated with creosote and other pre- 
sonatnes, i^ A\idol\ distributed. The im- 
l)ortance of New Orleans 
as a liTmber market con- 
sists largely in its export- 
ing to a great number of 
foreign countries. New 
Oi leans is situated close 
to the principal lumber- 
])ioducing sections. It is 
■well supplied with rail- 
road lines and waterways, 
and draws shipments for 
export from a wide ter- 
ritory. 

In the export of yellow 
pine, New Orleans is in- 
ferior to Gulfport, Mobile, 
and Pensacola. In the ex- 
port of hardwoods, such 
as oak, gum, cotton-wood, 
ash, poplar, and other 
woods of that character, 
it far exceeds these three 
ports combined. If the 
shipment of logs, 
staves, headings, rail- 
road ties, and miscel- 
laneous forms of lum- 
ber partly manufac- 
tured for special uses,, 



CYPRESS S\\ \MV 

-^Courteby uf the (. oiit-ei vdtion CommissioiJ, 



84 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



be added to the export of hard woods, New Or- 
leans far exceeds any other port in the country; 
such export is almost as great as that of all the 
Atlantic ports combined. Its export of staves 
varies yearly, from a little under to a little over 
half in numljer of the amount exported from the 
entire country. Great yards are maintained, in 
which are stored millions of staves awaiting 
shipment. A large proportion of these are sent 
abroad in full ship loads; many of these, as parts 
of wine casks, have the pleasure of returning 
home. 

The financing of the lumber industry is 
largely centered in New Orleans. The ofl&cial 
figiires for the year show the city handled 
$20,208,697 in forest products. 

Law Protecting Louisiana Forests. A law 
has been passed for the prevention of forest fires, 
making it a misdemeanor punishable by fine and 
imprisonnient. to negligently and wilfully set on 



fire any forest, brush, or grass land. Eailroad 

companies, operating through forest lands, are 
required to keep their right of way clear of all 
combustible materials. 

At present, there is very little reforestation 
in Louisiana. Acting under authority of Act 
261 of 1910, the Conservation Commission en- 
tered into an agreement with the owners of de- 
nuded forest lands for the purpose of encourag- 
ing its reforestation. The Commission agreed 
on behalf of the state to protect and supervise 
28,000 acres of denuded lands, set aside for the 
gi'owth of trees, for a period of forty years. This 
land is situated in the Parishes of La Salle, 
Winn, and Caldwell. 

TOPICS: Louisiana Lumber; Capital Invested; Laws Pro- 
tecting Forests; Reforestation. 

BEFEBENCES: Annual Reports of Lumbermen's Associa- 
tion; Lumbermen's Trade Journals; Report of April, 
1914, of Conservation Commission. 



SECTION 7. MINERALS. 



I. SULPHUR. 



Nature has endowed Louisiana with many 
wonderful natural resources. Inexhaustible de- 
posits of sulphur, salt, oil, natural gas, many 
fine kaolins, and clays, can be found within its 
borders. Throughout the tertiary strata, there 
occur in varying quantities, marble, sandstone, 
limestone, iron, gypsum. Fuller's earth, green 
sand, and other less important minerals. Of 
these, sulphur, salt, oil, and natural gas are the 
only ones that have been commercially de- 
veloped. 

Sulphur. The magnificent sulphur deposits 
in Calcasieu Parish were discovered in 1858, in 
one of the unsuccessful attempts to tap the oil 
deposits of Southwest Louisiana. The sulphur, 
covering an area of sixty-two acres, is supposed 
to be from a sunken volcano, several hundred 
feet underground, lying immediately below a 
quicksand. Vain attempts were made from time 
to time to utilize this wonderful gift of Nature. 

Attempted Developments. A French syndi- 
cate leased this property from 1886 until 1870. 
They imported their machinery and eastings 
from France and expended over a million and 
a half dollars on their project, before they 



abandoned what at last proved to be a fruitless 
undertaking. In 1889, a New York company 
tried to develop the mines, but failed. In 1902, 
Herman Frasch, a scientist, found a practical 
solution to the problem, which not only de- 
veloped the mines of Louisiana, but revolution- 
ized the sulphur industry of the world. 

The Frasch System. The Frasch system 
melts the sulphur from the sulphur-bearing rock 
by the application of hot water and steam, and 
the pumping by compressed air of the con- 
sequent liquid sulphur to the surface, where it 
is run into wooden tanks and allowed to congeal. 
As each layer of sulphur congeals, the operation 
is repeated, until the piles have attained the 
height of sixty or seventy feet and become solid 
mountains of sulphur, which are broken up by 
means of explosives. The famous sulphur mines 
of Sicily, owned by the Italian government, are 
operated on the shaft and tunnel principle, the 
consequent loss of life being very great. By the 
Frasch system, a workman never goes beneath 
the surface, every operation being carried on 
above the ground. 

Annual Production. The annual production 



THfi NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



85 



of the sulphur mines for 1913- '14 was 700,000 
tons, almost chemically pure, analyzing 99.9%, 
and was valued at $14,000,000. About 50,000 
tons were exported ; the remainder of the output 
is used' in the United States, 70% in the manu- 
facture of paper. (See Note.) Sulphur is also 
used in the manufacture of explosives and for 
agricultural purposes. It is a strong aid in the 
making of white sugar, without the use of bone 
black. Sulphuric acid is one of the most im- 
portant acids known to the chemist. The actual 
waste of this great natural resource is estimated 
not to exceed one per cent of the production. 

. Shipment of Sulphur. Most of the sulphur is 
shipped by the company's steamers from Port 



Sabine, Texas, to North Atlantic seaports for 
distribution throughout the United States and 
Canada. The National Sulphur Company, 
located in New York, is the largest sulphur re- 
finery in the world. 

Note. — In the manufacture of paper, sulphur is burned 
into into gas and passed through a tank containing milk of 
lime, and then, finely chopped wood, usually spruce, is mixed 
with the resultant fluid, which induces the pirocess of de- 
composition in the wood, and converts it into what is known 
as wood pulp. This industry is now confined chiefly to New 
York, Massachusetts, Maine, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. 

TOPICS: The Sulphur Deposits of Louisiana; Attempted 
Developments; The Frasch System; Annual Production; 
Shipment of Sulphur. 

BEFEBENCES: Report of Conservation Commission; Report 
of United States Geological Survey, 1913. 



■M-^ 












TONS OF SULPIIIU; lU'^.MtV KOlt. SillI'>rKNT. 



uiiservation Commission. 



II. SALT. 



Louisiana has the greatest rock salt deposits 
in the United States. Geologists have never 
been able to solve the mystery of these deposits. 
Some claim them to be of volcanic origin ; some, 
to the action of the wind and waves ; while others 
say they are due to the imprisonment of an arm 
of the sea, through alluvial deposits, and the 
consequent evaporation of the salt water, so en- 



closed. Louisiana's rock salt mines have been 
confined up to the present time to Avery's 
Island, Weeks' Island, Jefferson's Island, and 
Belle Isle, the last named known as the rendez- 
vous of Jean Lafitte. 

■ Louisiana Salt Industry. The production of 
Salt is Louisiana's oldest industry, the first 
white settlers having reported meeting Indian 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



salt ti-aders. ■ Evaporated salt made from the 
brine springs, was quite an important industry 
from the time of the first settlement until after 
the Civil War. It was then carried on intermit- 
tently, until 1894, when it died out altogether, 
owing to the more economic methods of making 
salt. 

Rock Salt Deposits. The inexhaustible rock 
salt deposits of Louisiana were discovered in 
May, 1862. Salt was very scarce at that time, 
and Mr. Avery of Avery's Island determined to 
bore for it. A negro workman, after going down 
sixteen feet, told Mr. Avery that he had struck 
a sunken log and could proceed no further. Mr. 
Avery found upon investigation that it was not 
a log, but the great rock salt deposits that have 
made Louisiana famous. Avery's 
Island was the only active salt 
mine in the state until 1903, when 
mining operations were com- 
menced at Week's Island deposit. 
The mine at Belle Isle was worked 
for some time, but the shaft was 
destroyed by water. 

Mining of Salt. Rock salt is 
mined in very much the same 
manner as all the baser minerals. 
The first operation is the drilling 
of the holes for the insertion of 
the dynamic charges, rock salt 
having the resisting power of 
5,000 pounds to the square inch. 
This is accomplished by eleven- 
foot drills. The salt is cut out in 
tunnel form, arched columns 
being left to prevent a collapse. 
These tunnels are 750 to 1,000 feet 
long and 80 to 100 feet wide, and 
of about the same height. The 
blasting is sometimes done at 
night to prevent accident, and to 
allow the atmosphere to clear for 
the next day's work. The salt is 
loaded on narrow-gauge mule 
trains, which carry it to the foot 
of the shaft. There, it passes 
through a great forty-horse-power 
electric motor-driven crusher in 
the Myles ' mine, but in the Avery's 
works the crushing is done at the 
top. After being crushed, the salt 
is fed by gravitation into the cage 
and carried to the mill, where it is 



fed automatically into screens and separated into 
the various commercial grades. If it is shipped 
in bulk, it is deposited by gravity into the cars, 
and if in small quantities, automatically fed into 
sacks. 

Annual Output. The annual output for 
1913- '14 was about 400,000 tons, valued at 
$1,000,000. Of this annual production, only 
500 tons a month were actually consumed in 
New Orleans, this amount being sold wholesale 
to jobbers. The coarser quality is used in all 
forms of refrigerating, curing of hides, preserv- 
ing of meat and fish, and the making of ice and 
ice cream. Salt is also used in glazing sewer 
pipes, as the lustrous enameling can be obtained 
in no other way. 




MINII7G SALT UNDER GROUND. 

— Courtesy of the Conservation Commission. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



87 



The shipment of both mines originate on tlie 
Southern Pacific road, and, naturally, the 
volume of the business, with the exception of 
the Western shipments, come through New Or- 
leans. Some of the salt goes to the West Indies, 
Central, and South America, Liverpool, and 
small shipments have been made to Copenhagen. 
The remainder is distributed over the United 



States and Canada. New York, Philadelphia, 
and Boston shipments are routed from New Or- 
leans by water. 

TOPICS: Louisiana's Salt Industry; The Mining of Salt; 
The Annual Output; The Shipment. 

REFEKENCES: Report of Conservation Commission of 
April, 1914; Agricultural Report of 1914. 



III. OIL. 



This valuable substance, like sulphur and salt, 
occurs in proximity with the older rocks of Lou- 
isiana. Greologically, the oil is believed to be ob- 
tained from quaternary sands. Louisiana now 
stands sixth among the great oil-producing states 
of the Union. Oil was prospected for before the 
Civil War, but the Gulf Coast country did not at- 
tract the attention 
of the great oil op- 
erators uniil 1901, 
when the Spindle 
Top gusher in the 
Beaumont district 
caused a gTeat rush 
to that section. 

Annual Produc- 
tion. The oil output 
for the year 1914 in 
Louisiana was 14,- 
309,435 barrels; 
valued at $12,886,- 
897, being an in- 
crease of nearly 2,- 
000,000 barrels over 
1913 (1,810,607 bar- 
rels). The Caddo 
field, which was one 



of the most important oil-producing sections of 
Louisiana, declined in 1914, and was overtopped by 
the great wells discovered in tha Red Eiver sec- 
tion. This section produced, in 1914, nearly four 
million barrels of oil, valued at over three and 
a half million dollars. The new fields at Anse 
la Butte and Edgerly, in the coastal sections, 
helped swell Lou- 
isiana's 1914 out- 
put and put it in 
the fifth place 
among the oil-pro- 
ducing states of the 
Union, being ex- 
ceeded by, in the 
order named, Cali- 
fornia, Oklahoma, 
Illinois and Texas. 
The recent decline 
in the Illinois fields 
seems to indicate 
that that state will 
be surpassed soon 
by both Texas and 
Louisiana; thus 
making fourth in 

OIL FIELD. trmt 

' —Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. K. OUipUt. 




IV. GAS. 



The gas fields of Caddo and De Soto Parishes, 
according to the last Government Survey report, 
are the greatest gas fields in the United States. 
The production from the eighty-four gas wells 
in the Caddo and eight in the De Soto fields was 
22,000,000 feet, valued at $2,550,000. 

It is believed that, through strict measures 
of conservation, these fields will continue to pro- 
duce unlimited quantities for a great period of 



years. The Caddo field supplies thirty-eight 
surrounding cities and towns in Louisiana, 
Arkansas, and Texas, with gas for fuel, lighting, 
and manufacturing purposes. A movement is 
being made to pipe gas into New Orleans from 
this field. 

TOPICS: History of Oil and Gas; Annual Production. 

REFERENCES: United States Government Survey Report 
of 1913. 



CHAPTER VIIl. 



Manufactures. 



Early History of This Industry. In the early 
French and Spanish days, New Orleans de- 
pended upon the mother countries for manu- 
factured goods. After Louisiana became a part 
of tlie United States, there was little change in 
the conditions prevailing in manufacturing, he- 
cause the city lacked skilled operatives, and 
commerce was more profitable. The few fac- 
tories in New Orleans owed their origin to the 
absolute necessities, and were for such repair 
work as could not be done anywhere else. The 
foundry, designed for the repair of machinery, 
led for many years in this industry, and from 
this business grew the manufacture of machin- 
ery, agricultural implements, boilers, etc. The 
development of the sugar industry jaroved a 
great stimulus to such manufactures. The iron 
industry of Alabama of recent years has also 
been an advantage. Gas was used as an illumi- 
nant here in advance of most of the Western 
cities; its manufacture dated back to 1833. 

The census of 1850 showed the weakness of 
New Orleans in manufactures, and in the follow- 
ing decade there was a still further decline. 
After the close of the Civil War, manufacturing 
began to receive more attention. The disap- 
pearance of slavery, the enemy of free labor, had 
a beneficial effect, and there was a large supply of 
labor, though somewhat unskilled. The year 1885 
marked a period of prosperity in this industry. 
The census of 1900 showed that New Orleans was 
the largest manufacturer of cotton seed oil in the 
world; the largest cleaner and preparer of rice 
and molasses, and of various canned goods. It 
held a high position in the refining of sugar, the 
manufacturing of clothing, cigars, and a number 
of other commodities. 

New Orleans in 1914. New Orleans now 
ranks thirty-fifth as a manufacturing city. Gov- 
ernment statistics show that in the last five 
years, New Orleans has increased in manufac- 
tures more than any other city in the South. 
The center of population is now drifting south- 
ward, and the Panama Canal will increase this 
movement one hundredfold. At present, there 



are 848 factories in this city, 80,000 wage-earn- 
ers, and the annual production in monetary 
value is $78,000,000. This is greater than the 
combined manufactures of Atlanta and Birming- 
ham, or Dallas and Houston. If we include in 
this list, the American Sugar Refinery and the 
various factories of St. Bernard and Jefl'erson 
Parishes, which may properly be done, since the 
freight movement is from New Orleans, and 
most of the factories have their general offices 
established in the city, the value of the goods 
manufactured in the territory would easily total 
$150,000,000. This is greater than Atlanta, 
Birmingham, and Memphis combined. Within 
the ijrecise boundaries of New Orleans, the lead- 
ing commodity in value is burlap and cotton 
bags, rice (polished), ranking second. The real 
strength of New Orleans as a manufacturing 
city is in the diversity of goods made. The 
number of factories is less to-day than twenty 
years ago, because larger factories have been 
installed, and many smaller ones have been 
amalgamated. The amount of money invested, 
the number of employees, and the value of the 
finished products, are far greater. 

New Orleans as a Manufacturing Center. 
This city is excellently located as a manufactur- 
ing center, and is the distributing point for 
eleven Southern States. Statistics show that 62 
per cent of the raw materials for manufacturing, 
are found in the Mississippi Valley, and New Or- 
leans is the gateway of the Valley. Many raw 
materials are shipped to and through New Or- 
leans from Cuba, Central America, and Mexico. 

Cotton, woolen goods, and tobacco products 
can be made to the best advantage in New Or- 
leans, because of the equability of the humidity. 
The water, which is now pumped out by the 
modern water plant of the city, is excellent for 
dyeing purposes, and for that reason colored 
woolen and cotton goods may easily be made 
here. For woolen goods, the raw material can 
be brought frons Texas, New Mexico, and Ari- 
zona, or from the Western South American 
countries by means of the Panama Canal. The 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



89 



mauufacture of pants and ready-made elotliing 
already eonstitntes a large industry. 

Raw Materials Now Used in New Orleans. 
The principal raw materials now used in New 
Orleans by factories are hard and soft woods, 
cabinet woods, metals, wool, cotton, chemicals, 
hides and skins, sand and glass for building, 
brick and tile, fresh and salt shells. 

The hard and soft woods are found in the 
immediate vicinity of New Orleans. The lumber 
industry is one of the oldest, the reason being 
the ease with which lumber can be marketed. 
There are many finely equipped plants on the 
river front and on or near the two basins. One 
firm is the largest exporter of lumber in the 
world. The approximate figures for 1913- '14 of 
the lumber industry in New Orleans were about 
32,000,000 feet of cypress, 3,500,000 to 5,000,000 
feet of pine, and 15,000,000 feet of mahogany. 
The amount paid in salaries and wages in the 
wood-working industries, furniture excluded, 
was $250,000. The capital 
invested, furniture fac- 
tories excluded, was 
$4,582,000. Doors, sash, 
and blinds manufactures 
amounted to $650,000, and 
the box and box shooks to 
about $750,000. One plant 
makes a specialty of the 
' ' Standard Fold-Up Box, ' ' 
which saves time, labor, 
and money, and for these 

reasons it has been adopted by 'many large fac- 
tories throughout the country. 

New Orleans is well supplied with cooperages 
of large capacities. These plants have modern 
machinery for making barrels, half -barrels, and 
kegs of all descriptions, principally for oil, mo- 
lasses, lard, liquor, sugar, produce, and fish. 

Mahongany, Ebony, and Rosewood. These 
woods are imported from Central America, and 
in 1913- '14, one-third of the entire amount used 
in the United States, amounting to about $1,000,- 
000, passed through New Orleans. The largest 
mahogany plant in the United States is located 
here, giving employment to several hundred 
men. New Orleans, because of her age, is recog- 
nized as a center of antique furniture, and sev- 
eral plants are turning out copies of the old 
styles in solid mahogany, rosewood, and walnut 
furniture of the highest grade. There are thirty 
plants making case goods, chairs of medium 




grade, brass and iron beds, mattresses of felt 
and hair, springs, etc. 

Copper and Brass Works. The copper and 
brass works manufacture turpentine stills, an 
apparatus for the preparations of the South 's 
naval stores for market, alcohol and vinegar 
stills, steam jackets and candy kettles. There 
are manufactories of tanks for all purposes, 
towers, stacks; in fact, all kinds of sheet metal 
works give employment to boiler-makers, pipe- 
fitters, copper, and iron workers. 

Manufacture of Boots and Shoes. The manu- 
facturers of boots and shoes obtain their raw 
material from the leather tanneries north of the 
Ohio River. As early as 1850, New Orleans 
manufactured nearly all the shoes used in the 
city and surrounding country. These shoes were 
then custom-made, but for many years modern 
machinery has been used. 

Manufacture of Ice. Ice was introduced into 
New Orleans in 1826, and was regarded as a 
luxury. It came from 
Maine in sailing vessels, 
and, as a large part of the 
cargo was lost in the long 
voyage, the remainder 
commanded a high price. 
The supply was uncer- 
tain and the city was fre- 
quently without ice in 
the hottest months of 
summer. Gayarre says, 
"The first cargo of ice 
was dumped into the Mississippi River by the 
order of Mayor Macarty, who, backed by public 
opinion, declared that iced drinks would make 
consumptives of the people." The importation 
continued until 1868, when the manufactories of 
artificial ice drove out the New England product. 
The process, at first, was very expensive, but 
since 1898 has been improved and simplified. 
At present, there are many splendid ice plants, 
and the manufactured product is so cheap, that 
it is within the reach of the poorest families. 

Cotton Seed Oil Industry. The cotton seed 
oil industry owes its origin to New Orleans, be- 
cause the process of manufacturing oil from the 
seed was discovered here. It has always been 
the center of this industry, and many of the 
mills in the surrounding country manufacture 
crude oil and ship it to New Orleans to be re- 
fined. Outgrowths of this industry are the soap 
mills, fertilizers, and acid factories. Large 



OTIS MAHOGANY PLANT, 



90 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



quantities of this oil are shipped to Southern 
Europe. It is also used in the manufacture of 
lard in the Western packing houses. The mills 
manufacture cotton-seed cake and meal, which 
are excellent as a food for cattle. Thousands of 
tons are exported to Europe each year for feed- 
ing stock. These by-products enter into the 
manufacture of nearly all the commercial fertil- 
izers now produced in the South. 

Manufacture of Beer. The manufacture of 
beer is one of the more recent industries, the first 
company being organized in 1882. 

Canning Factories. Canning is the greatest 
utility industry of the age. Were it not for the 
canneries, our present great centers must need 
have been small cities — for the good reason that 
a great city could not be fed without the help of 
canneid goods. It is estimated that 50 per cent 
of all the fruits and vegetables in the United 
States would go to waste except for the can- 
neries. It is possible to save the over-produc- 
tion of a good year for the famine that may come 
another, proving that the industry is a mighty 
economy and the largest conserver of foods ever 
discovered. The canneries in and near New Or- 
leans buy many of their fish, vegetables, and 
fruits, etc., in the New Orleans markets. New 
Orleans, as a distributing point for the can- 
neries, sends canned goods to all parts of the 
United States, Canada, and Europe. Thousands 
of cans of dried shrimp are sent annually to 
China, where they are considered a great table 
delicacy. 

The Future of New Orleans. New Orleans, 
the second largest seaport in the country, is 
destined to become a great manufacturing- 
center. The mighty Mississippi, on which ply 
manj^ steamboats, the steamship lines, the barge 



lines through canals, and the eleven trunk lines 
that have their terminals here, afford the manu- 
facturer every facility. The Public Belt Line, 
owned and operated by the city, has over twenty- 
eight miles of trackage, crossing every railroad, 
and covering a greater portion of the water 
front, giving direct touch to the steamboats and 
the steamships. As a center of distribution. 
New Orleans cannot be excelled. Skilled labor 
is plentiful, and the Immigration Station is now 
receiving large numbers of northern Europeans. 
Many of these are efficient laborers, anxious to 
secure employment. The maintenance of a fac- 
tory is not expensive, as coal and fuel oil can be 
obtained at moderate prices. Electricity for 
power made by the plants in New Orleans is 
often used, being more economical in some cases. 
Wood, if necessary, can be obtained from the 
yellow pine and cypress mills, from waste in the 
furniture factories, and also from cord wood 
obtained in the nearby yellow pine forests. The 
location of New Orleans gives a delightful 
equability of temperature and there are few 
days in winter, when factory doors cannot be 
opened. 

The advancement of New Orleans in the last 
few years is due to the men who realize the pos- 
sibilities of their city, and have succeeded in 
putting it in the front rank, where it rightfully 
belongs. To the future citizens of New Orleans 
will be given the task of keeping up this great 
work of civic advancement. 

TOPICS: Early History of Manufacture; New Orleans in 
1914; New Orleans as a Manufacturing Center; Mahog- 
any, Ebony, Eosewood; Manufacture of Furniture; 
Copper and- Brass Works; Boots and Shoes; lee; Cotton 
Seed Oil Industry; Canning Factories; The Future' of 
New Orleans. 

REFERENCES: Archives of City Hall and Cabildo; 
Pamphlets of the Association of Commerce. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Foodstuffs. 



SECTION 1. TRUCK FARMING. 



Development of the Truck Farm in Lou- 
isiana. On account of the semi-tropical climate 
of tlie state and the varied altitudes, from the 
high hills of northern Louisiana, the foothills of 
the Ozark Mountains, to the alluvial soil of the 
lowlands along the network of prairies and 
bayous, Louisiana is enabled to produce a greater 
variety of fruit and vegetables than any other 
state in the Union. Fifty years ago, there was 
little truck raised around New Orleans and 
most of it was consumed locally, because the 
methods of packing and shipping were crude. 
The first shipment of truck from New Orleans to 
the North was about 1866, being sent by boat to 
Memphis and St. Louis. When the railroads 
and express companies furnished adequate facil- 
ities for forwarding shipments to northern and 
western markets, truck farms sprang up like 
mushrooms. Though the methods of handling and 
packing were poor, the farmers made a great 
deal of money, and New Orleans soon became the 
center of an intensive agriculture. There were no 
refrigerator cars, ice factories, or box factories. 
About thirty-five years ago, ship- 
pers began using refrigerator 
cars, and box factories were built 
to supply the containers for these 
products. Up to that time, many 
used second-hand sugar barrels, 
cutting holes in them for ventila- 
tion. This was unsatisfactory, as 
the vegetables often reached their 
destination in an unsalable con- 
dition. About twenty-five years 
ago, shippers began to use ice on 
vegetables packed in barrels, and 
this is still practiced. This busi- 
ness has increased to such an ex- 
tent that there are now several ice 
companies and cooperages that 
supply ice and bai'rels to the ship- 
pers. Methods of barreling and 
packing are so improved that 



vegetables sent great distances, reach their des- 
tination in perfect condition. In 1914, New Or- 
leans sent out about 1,300 carloads of truck. 

Change from Plantation System to Truck 
Farming.. For many years, vast plantations 
were devoted to the cultivation of cotton, sugar, 
and rice, to the exclusion of other products. 
These plantations were expensive to maintain, 
and often an overflow would leave a rich man 
bankrupt. Of late years, however, conditions 
have changed, and many of these large planta- 
tions have been cut up into truck farms; this has 
so increased the trucking industry, that to-day 
it is valued at millions of dollars annually, and 
is growing in importance each year. The result 
is greater prosperity to many. 

Principal Trucking Sections. In trucking, 
so increased the trucking industry, that to-day, 
ductivity, it being possible to raise four crops 
of vegetables on the same land in the same year, 
without any fertilization. These vegetables com- 
mand a higher price than those of any other 
parish, on account of its contiguity to the City 




PRODUCTS OF A TRUCK FARM ON RECLAIMED LAND. 



92 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



of New Orleans, whose railroads lead to the 
great centers of the country. Plaquemines and 
Jefferson Parishes, as well as St. Bernard Parish, 
furnish the city with vast supplies for home con- 
sumption and for shipment. Among the latter 
are lettuce, cabbages, onions, tomatoes, beans, 
peas, eggi^lants, spinach, radishes, carrots, shal- 
lots, and kohlrabi. Cucumbers are grown in hot- 
beds and in the open, and, when sent North, 
bring good prices. 

Products of the Louisiana Truck Farm. Few 
are aware of the extent of the commercial truck 
sections in Louisiana. Along the Illinois Cen- 
tral, which leads from New Orleans, are farms 
on which are grown beans, cucumbers, canta- 
loupes, cabbages, eggplants, sweet-peppers, to- 
matoes, and potatoes. Not only do these, and 
most of the vegetables raised in the northern 
states grow well here, but there are many others 
which belong peculiarly to the South, as okra, 
lima beans, and globe artichokes. Such vege- 
tables as lettuce and turnips are often raised in 
kitchen gardens without any trouble to the 
householder. Mustard, cauliflower, and English 
peas gi'ow throughout the winter. Oats, rye, 



and barley make very profitable crops, while, 
owing to the extreme fertility of the soil, many 
kinds of grasses, valuable as cattle feed, may be 
harvested at a great profit. The cities and towns 
are cooperating with the country districts in a 
widespread movement for the improvement of 
farm lands, and the introduction of modern 
methods of farming. 

School Grardening. The school garden, as 
well as the home garden, can direct attention to 
the advantages of the cultivation of the soil; for 
gardening is applied nature study. Economists 
teach that a greater production of foodstuffs is 
imperative. Gardens near to or within the city 
are a possible means of obtaining this result. 
If the public schools are to adapt themselves to' 
the needs of the children, an occupation based 
on human welfare should be a subject of instruc- 
tion. The tilling of the soil is a fundamental neces- 
sity. In 1914, The Nature Study Club of the Nor- 
mal School decided to try to promote interest in 
■ gardening by conducting a school garden contest. 
A highly creditable exhibit was made by several 
schools. This so encouraged the Club that it de- 
termined to carry on the work in a broader way. 



SECTION 2. FRUITS. 



Different kinds of soil produce different 
kinds of fruit. Louisiana, having such a varied 
soil, naturally admits of the cultivation of a 
great variety of fruit. There are some fruits, 
however, which grow in all sections of the state. 
Among these are the strawberry, blackberry, 
dewberry, sand pear, and fig. The last men- 
tioned, being so perishable, must be canned be- 
fore it is shipped. On account of this, few per- 
sons outside of the fig-growing section, are 
familiar with the delicious flavor of the fresh 
fruit. Many varieties of plum are raised, and 
the Japanese persimmon bears well. Grrapes 
succeed best in the uplands. Bananas may be 
grown on Louisiana soil, but are not cultivated 
to any extent. New Orleans does a thriving 
business in importing bananas from the tropics 
and sending them to all parts of the Union. 

The apple represents the greatest undevel- 
oped industry in the United States. A cold 
storage and ice refrigerating plant has been 
established in New Orleans with the view of 
making this port the greatest distributing 
center for the shipment of apples to South 



and Central America, and through the Panama 
Canal. 

The Strawberry Industry. In Tangipahoa 
Parish, are immense strawberry farms, that have 
a world-wide fame. The annual shipment of 
this berry amounts to millions of dollars, from 
a district which, thirty years ago, was an in- 
definable forest. 

History of the Citrus Fruits. . Centuries ago, 
there grew in the wilds of southeastern Asia and 
the Malay Archipelago, a ragged shrulj, which 
produced a small berry full of seeds and bitter- 
ness. After many generations of patient culti- 
vation and innumerable experiments, there have 
been evolved from this humble beginning, the 
monarchs of the fruit kingdom, the orange, the 
grape-fruit, and their satellites. China is the 
original home of the orange. 

The Citrus Fruits in Louisiana. The rich, 
alluvial lands of Southern Louisiana are the 
most favorable for the growth of the citrus 
fruits, which are the orange, the mandarin, the 
grape-fruit, the lemon, and the kumquat. It is 
impossible to ascertain in what year these fruits 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



93 



were introduced into Louisiana, but it is gener- 
ally accepted that oranges were first brought to 
New Orleans by the Jesuit Fathers, in 1727. 
Later, seedling oranges became plentiful in the 
southern part of the State. 

First Louisiajia Orajige Grove. The first Lou- 
isiana orange grove, of which there is any record, 
was planted by Florentine Buras in 1860, and 
traces of this place still remain. About 1867, an 



and afford a livelihood for a large number of 
people. 

Life of the Citrus Tree. The citrus trees live 
to a great age. Trunks of large trees which have 
been lying for ballast in the holds of vessels, 
have, when j)lanted and properly tended, taken 
root and renewed their lives. 

Medicinal Virtues. The orange has many 
medicinal virtues, and the Creole mothers have 




ORANGE GROVE. 



orange grove of 125,000 seedling trees was 
planted fifty miles below New Orleans, and for 
some years was operated on a large scale, al- 
though modei'n horticultural methods were un- 
known. The grove is at present being culti- 
vated in a small way. The numerous commer- 
cial orange groves located in the district below 
New Orleans, cover from 5,000 to 7,000 acres 



always recognized orange-flower water as a 
remedy for fevers. In recent operations in the 
Brooklyn Navy Hospital, the Essence of Oranges 
was used as an anaesthetic in conjimction with 
ether. This was so satisfactory that physicians 
loredict its adoption for both Navy and Army, 
as it is much safer and less costly than the use 
of ether alone. 



SECTIONS. FISH. 



Fisheries. The principal fish resources of 
the state are the large fresh-water fish such as 
spoon-bill cat, buffalo fish, and catfish, which 
are usually brought into New Orleans by ex- 
press, packed in barrels with ice. The salt water 
fish such as sheephead, sea trout, pompano, 
Spanish mackerel, red fish, etc., are found along 
the Gulf Coast from the Pearl to the Sabine 
Rivers, and are brought to New Orleans by 



schooners and luggers. New Orleans also buys 
salt water fish from Mississippi and Florida. All 
fish are bought by wholesale dealers, who sell to 
the markets. Some firms handle both salt and 
fresh water fish, while others only the former. 
The fresh water fisheries are valued at $2,000,000 
annually, and the value of fish received in New 
Orleans amounts to several hundred thousand 
dollars. River shrimp is considered a delicacy. 



94 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



Salt water shrimi:) are usually brought to 
New Orleans in the same manner as salt water 
fish, but some of the shrimp fishermen are now 
using power boats. Most of these shipments 
are well iced, unless the weather is such as 
to make this unnecessary. The annual shrimp 
catch is valued at not less than half a million 
dollars. Seventy-five per cent of the product 



is canned in the canneries in New Orleans 
atfd along the Gulf Coast. There are several 
colonies of Chinese in Barataria Bay, whose 
chief occupation is the drying of shrimp. The 
largest platform is "Manila Village," the 
shrimpers, however, being a mixed popula- 
tion, representing almost every country of 
the globe. 



SECTION 4. OYSTER INDUSTRY. 



Oyster Resources. The oyster industry of 
Louisiana, at present, is dependent on 60,000 
acres of natural reefs on which oysters are 
found growing freely without any cultivation; 
and on about 20,000 acres df leased bottoms, on 
which special methods are used by the lease- 
holder in order to promote the growth of oysters. 

Method of Oyster Cultivation. The method 
of oyster cultivation is to provide a surface to 
which young oysters or spats may attach them- 
selves. If such a surface is established in the 
neighborhood of a natural reef, the spats from 
the latter will become attached to the new 



location and grow there. Otherwise, seed oysters 
must be placed where the new bed or reef is to 
be formed, so that in the spawning season, a 
supply of spats will be provided for the stocking 
of the new bed. Oyster shells and other hard 
substances, called "cultch," are the materials 
used in making a new oyster bed. 

Value of the Oyster Industry. The oyster in- 
dustry is value at about $5,000,000. New Or- 
leans receives annually about 250,000 barrels, 
worth about $560,000. Oysters are brought 
generally in sacks by lugger and other craft. 
Small shipments, however, of opened oysters 




LOADIVG OYSTERS ON A TRANSPORT. 



— Courtesy of the Conservation Commissiou. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



95 



in containers, are also received. Oysters are 
bought principally by wholesale dealers, who 
sell to the local markets and ship to other 
points. 

Small shops sometimes buy from the oyster- 
men of St. Bernard Parish. Counter oysters 
come from the Bayou Cook district in Plaque- 
mines Parish, and cooking oysters from the 
Timbalier field in Lafourche Parish. 



It is difficult to say which is the best oyster 
gi'ound. Some sections are better at one season 
and others at another, everything depending on 
the condition of the water, especially the degree 
of salinity. The Timbalier territory promises 
to be one of the leading sections in a few years. 
Fine oysters come from Bayou Chaland, but the 
supply is limited, as they do not multiply rapidly 
on these beds. 



SECTIONS. GAME— BIRDS. 



As a duck ground in winter, the coastal sec- 
tion of Louisiana is one of the most celebrated 
in America. About fifteen species of duck are 
present in more or less abundance during the 
periods of migration, in late fall and early 
spring and varying periods in mid- winter. The 
principal species are the mallard, pin-tail, grey 
duck, teal, canvas-back, black, and lesser scaup, 
or "dos-gris"; six species of geese, including 
the Canada goose, are also found. Other game 



birds are the coot or "poule d'eau," snipe, wood- 
cock, and rail. The upland birds are, wild 
turkey, quail, and dove. 

Game reaches New Orleans by express. 
During the season of 1913-1914, the game deal- 
ers of this city received more than 200,000 ducks, 
geese, snipe, and poule d'eau, the value of which 
exceeded $100,000. 

Note. — See bird exhibit at Louisiana State Museum. 



SECTION 6. GAME— ANIMALS. 



The i^rincipal game animal is the Louisiana, 
or white-tailed deer, which is found in well- 
wooded sections. The sale of deer is pro- 
hibited by the laws of Louisiana. Three 
species of hare abound — the Southern cotton- 
tail, marsh hare, and water hare. Few native 
hares or "rabbits" are received in New Or- 
leans. The killing of these animals for market- 
ing in this state is not an occupation of any con- 
sequence. 

The Conservation Commission. Eealizing 
the value of the fish and game preserves of Lou- 
isiana, the legislature of 1912 established a Con- 



servation Commission for their control and pro- 
tection. This CoixQuission has its offices in the 
New Orleans Court Building in New Orleans, 
and has varied duties and powers. It has armed 
patrols on the boundary lines between the waters 
of Louisiana and Mississippi and throughout the 
state, to prevent the violation of any of these 
laws. Their officers have the power to search 
or examine any cold storage, warehouse, boat, 
store, conveyance, or fish basket, when they have 
cause to believe that the law of protection is 
being violated. The State of Louisiana has over 
forty species of mammals. 



SECTION 7. FUR-BEARING ANIMALS. 



The State of Louisiana is particularly rich 
in fur-bearing animals, and the trapping in- 
dustry has reached such proportions as to 
make it a resource of large revenue and 
means of livelihood to a considerable per- 
centage of the population of the state. The 



principal fur-bearers of Louisiana, from which 
are taken about five million pelts a year, are 
otter, mink, muskrat, raccoon, opossum, skunk, 
fox, wolf, beaver, and civet-cat. In 1913, the 
trappers of the state earned $1,305,000 by their 
work.. 



96 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



SECTION 8. MEATS. 



In no state of the Union can live stock be 
more easily raised than in Louisiana, and many 
farmers are turning their attention to this in- 
dustry. Cattle are fattened, not only on ample 
pasturage and forage crops, but also on the 
cotton seed meal and hulls, rice bran, polish, and 
shorts from the rice mills, and cheap molasses 
from the sugar factories. Thousands of these 
cattle are shipped annually to the Northern and 
Western markets. Sheep-raising is carried on 
very profitably, — the cut-over pine lands afford- 
ing splendid ranges. Hogs are easily raised, 
and great interest is now being manifested in 
this kind of farming. 

The Abattoir Companies. There are two 
large slaughter-houses from which the people of 
New Orleans obtain their supply of meat. The 
live stock reaches the yards by rail when shipped 
from points in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, 
Arkansas, and Tennessee. Stock shipped from 
points on the east side of the Mississippi Eiver 
is transferred by boat from the railroad ter- 
minals. 

How Purchased. All live stock is consigned 
to commission merchants, whose offices are 
located on the stockyard grounds, and who, here 
sell direct to the butchers. The slaughtering is 
done by the abattoir companies, and the beef, 
veal, pork, and mutton are stored in refriger- 
ators until called for by the butchers. 

Inspection — Slaughtering. Before being 
slaughtered, all stock is examined by inspectors 
of the State Board of Health and of the United 
States Government. After being killed, they 



are dressed and are ready for the refrigerators. 
While they are being dressed, inspection is made 
by a representative of the City Board of Health 
and by a United States inspector. All carcasses 
found unfit for food are condemned and tanked 
for by-products — grease, tallow, and fertilizer, — 
which are manufactured by the company. 

Refrigerators. The refrigerators are of the 
direct expansion system and are kept at a tem- 
perature from 30° to 35° Fahrenheit. The meat, 
as a rule, remains in the cooler from three to 
twenty days, according to the size and quality. 

Means of Delivery. The meat is delivered by 
means of wagons and auto trucks ( owned by the 
slaughter-house company) between the hours of 
12M and 6 A. M. 

Western Packing House. Four large branches 
of Western packing companies are located in 
New Orleans, and do an immense wholesale busi- 
ness with markets, hotels, and steamships. The 
meat is sent here in refrigerator cars, having 
had both ante-mortem and post-mortem inspec- 
tion. It is inspected here by the city and the 
United States inspectors. 

TOPICS: History of Trucking; Sources of the New Orleans 
Supply; Co-Operation of the City and the Country Dis- 
tricts. 

Louisiana Fruits; Strawberry Industry; History of 
the Citrus Fruits; Louisiana Orange Groves. 

Fisheries; Oyster Eesourees; Oyster Cultivation; 
Value of the Oyster Industry. 

Game-Birds and Animals; The Conservation Com- 
mission. 

The Live Stock of Louisiana; The Abattoir Com- 
panies; Western Packing Houses. 

EEFERENCES: Agricultural Report of February, 1914; 
Eeport of Conservation Commission, April, 1914; News- 
paper Files. 



CHAPTER X. 



Professions — Trades. 



SECTION 1. THE BENCH AND BAR. 



Louisiana Laws. The Louisiana laws are 
all that is best of two great systems built up by 
the genius of man and tested by the experience 
of generations. Their fundamental principles 
approach as near the ideal as possible, for they 
are a texture composed of the best material from 
both the Common and the Eoman Civil Laws. 
The Common Law of England inspires men with 
the knowledge that the power of government 
must never overshadow the rights of man. The 
Civil Law of Rome, modified by the noblest 
thoughts of France and Spain, teaches that the 
lasting foundation for right and justice is to be 
found in the Golden Rule. The Civil Law will 
always receive the homage of scholars as a sin- 
gular monument of wisdom. 

Early History. In the early days of Amer- 
ican domination, it was a question whether the 
laws of Louisiana were the laws of France or of 
Spain. Until 1769, when Don O'Reilly took 
possession of the colony, the laws were those of 
France, but he issued an edict proclaiming the 
laws of Spain. After the cession to the United 
States, the question arose as to whether this 
edict had repealed the laws of France. This 
point has never been settled, but as both systems 
took their origin from the same source, the 
dilf'erence was not great. 

The Courts After the Cession. For a long 
while after the cession of Louisiana, it was an 
absolute necessity for the judges to understand 
both the French and the English language. In 
every court, there was a permanently employed 
interpreter, who translated the evidence, and, 
when necessary, the charge of the judge to the 
jury. The juries were composed of men, some 
of whom did not understand one word of French, 
while others were equally as ignorant of En- 
glish, The litigants had to employ two lawyers, 
one speaking French and the other English. All 
writs were in both languages. Trial by jury was 
new to the Louisianians. While the American 
lawyers were speaking, the French jurymen 



were excused. The English-speaking members 
were, in turn, excused to enjoy their cigars and 
promenade in the arcades. After the argument, 
the jury met in their chamber to decide the case, 
and in most instances came to a satisfactory 
agreement. 

The Code of 1808 and 1825. The original 
Code of 1808 was founded on the projet of the 
Code Napoleon. The Code of 1825 was revised 
in 1870, and is the pi-esent Louisiana Civil Code. 
Many of its articles are but translations of that 
Code, but there are amendments by different 
legislatures to many parts of it. An act of 1828 
abolished the Roman, French, and Spanish laws 
that were not reprinted in the Code of 1825. 

Distinguished Jurists and Lawyers. The 
Bench and Bar have always stood deservedly 
high, but it would far exceed the limits of this 
chapter to attempt to record the individual 
achievements of all the jurists and lawyers who 
have left the impress of their worth on every 
page of the statutes and in every volume of the 
law reports. The sons of Louisiana thrill with 
pride when they hear the names of Francois A. 
Martin, John R. Grymes, Edward Livingston, 
Alfred Hennen, Christian Roselius, Pierre Soule, 
Etienne Mazureau, Judali P. Benjamin, Thomas 
J. Semmes, and Ernest B. Kruttsclmitt. 

Frangois X. Martin. Genius such as his re- 
quires neither brass nor stone to preserve his 
memory, for he built for himself an imperishable 
monument in the jurisprudence of the state. He 
was the first Attorney-General and a judge of 
the Supreme Court for thirty-one years. The 
legal reputation of Louisiana was founded on 
the genius of Judge Martin, whose decisions 
were able and authoritative and read like the 
Code. Judge Martin left a large fortune. He 
became blind about eight years before his death. 
His will was contested on the ground that a 
blind man could not make a valid olographic 
will. The Supreme Court, however, upheld the 
will, which left his estate to his brother, 



98 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



John R. Grymes. John Randolph Grymes 
came to New Orleans not long before the Battle 
of New Orleans, in which he served as an aide 
to General Jackson. In the latter 's dispatches 
to "Washington, the name of John R. Grymes was 
mentioned in complimentary terms. Colonel 
Gr^nnes was counsel for General Jackson in the 
United States Bank case. He was opposed to 
Daniel Webster in the Gaines case. He was also 
attorney for the Baratarian pirates. On one 
occasion he went to their lair on the Gnlf Coast 
to collect his fee. He remained for a week, and 
said his stay was most enjoyable. 

Edward Livingston. Edward Livingston 
arrived in New Orleans in 1804, just after his 
brother Robert had completed negotiations for 
the purchase of Louisiana. He was a profound 
jurist and an accomplished scholar. He repre- 
sented Louisiana in the Senate, was Secretary 
of State under General Jackson, and Minister 
to France. 

Alfred Hennen. Alfred Hennen was one of 
the most distingaiished lawyers of the first part 
of the nineteenth century. He came to New Or- 
leans in 1808. Many members of the bar re- 
ceived their legal education in the office of 
Alfred Hennen, or attended his lectures at the 
Law School. 

Christian Roselius. Christian Roselius came 
to New Orleans in 1819 as a "redemptioner," 
that is, he hired his services for a stated period 
in payment for his transportation. Mr. Roselius 
was first a printer, but 
later studied law and 
gradually rose to promi- 
nence, becoming Attorney- 
General of the State. His 
legal reputation was so 
great that he was oifered 
a partnership by Daniel 
Webster, which he de- 
clined. It is said he pos- 
sessed a voice of immense 
volume and great carrying- 
power. 

Judah P. Benjamin. 
Judah P. Benjamin studied 
law in New Orleans in a 
notary's office and was ad- 
mitted to the bar in 1832. 
At first, he met with small 
success and devoted him- 
self to teaching, mean- 



while, keeping up his legal studies by taking 
notes from the law reports. He finally estab- 
lished a good practice, and about 1847, his repu- 
tation became national. Louisiana histories tell 
of his brilliant career before and during the 
Civil War. Northern writers speak of him as 
the ' ' brains of the Confederacy. ' ' After the war 
was over, Benjamin escaped to England through 
perils enough to make a romance. He read for 
the English bar and was admitted to practice in 
1866, supporting himself, meanwhile, by news- 
paper writing. It was only after his "Book on 
Sales" appeared that his reputation as a lawyer 
became established. When he retired in 1888, 
he was one of the greatest lawyers of England. 

Thomas J. Semmes. Thomas J. Semmes, a 
brother of Admiral Raphael Semmes, is a name 
familiar to every Orleanian. He was Attorney- 
General of Louisiana, and a Confederate State 
Senator. After the close of the war he resumed 
practice in New Orleans, and soon became the 
undisputed head of the Louisiana bar, rankiiig 
among the greatest lawyers of his own or of any 
other time. He was the very- incarnation of legal 
learning, and intellectually a giant before whom 
few could stand. 

Ernest B. Kruttschuitt. Ernest Benjamin 
Kruttschnitt, a nephew of Judah P. Benjamin, 
was born in New Orleans, April 17, 1852, and 
died on his birthday, at fifty-four years of age. 
Mr. Kruttschnitt entered Washington and Lee 
College at fifteen years of age, and graduated 




m:w okleaxs court building. 

— Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. ^, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



99 



with the highest honors in 1870. He accepted 
the chair of History and Literature at this 
university, and at the same time studied law. 
He returned to New Orleans in 1873 and began 
the practice of his profession. He was soon 
recognized as one of the leading lawyers. His 
brilliancy of mind and executive ability made 
him the leader of the Democratic party. His 
advice, legal and otherwise, was usually sought 
when matters of great moment were in question. 
His services for nineteen and a half years as a 
member and president of the School Board were 
most valuable. He was the moving spirit in plac- 
ing the school work on a civil service basis and in 
establishing the Board as a business corporation. 
He was president of the Constitutional Conven- 
tion of 1898, and guided that body through its 
strenuous sessions. His life is written in the laws 
of Louisiana and in its historic court records. 
The Bench and Bar of To-Day. The New 



Orleans Bench and Bar of to-day rank among 
the foremost in this great land, and many of its 
brilliant members have compiled editions of the 
Codes and Digests. The Louisiana Law Associ- 
ation, incorporated in 1847, was reorganized in 
1899, and its name changed to the Louisiana Bar 
Association. In the thirty-seven years of its ex- 
istence, the American Bar Association has three 
times honored Louisiana with the presidency of 
that eminent body. A Louisiana lawyer holds, 
through merit, the exalted office of Chief Justice 
of the LTnited States. The judges of the Supreme 
Courts are required by law to belong to the legal 
profession. 

TOPICS: The Louisiana Laws; Early History'; The Code of 
1808 and 1825; Distinguished Jurists and Lawyers; The 
Bench and Bar of To-Day. 

REFERENCES: The New Orleans Book of 1851; Foote's 
Bench and Bar of the South and Southwest; The Amer- 
ican (after 1875, Appleton's) Annual Encyclopedia, 
1861-1902. 



SECTION 2. HISTORY OF MEDICINE. 



Tlie demand for men possessing or claiming 
to possess the art of^ healing or alleviating the 
diseases and suffering of frail humanity, must 
have been coeval with the appearance of man on 
the surface of the earth. 

Indian Medicine Men. In America, long be- 
fore its discovery and colonization by the Euro- 
]ieans, the Indians had their medicine men. The 
Natchez, so familiar to every student of Lou- 
isiana history, were superior to the tribes that 
dwelt around them. Their physicians claimed 
a knowledge of more than three hundred 
medicinal plants native to Louisiana soil, and 
taught the colonists the use of them. The 
curative powers of these plants so impressed 
De La Chaise that he sent a collection of them 
to France, with a memoir written by La Page 
du Pratz. The Natchez understood the art of 
lilood-letting, and the water cure was familiar 
to them. It is to these Indians that the 
Louisianians owe their acquaintance with the 
medicinal qualities of sassafras, sarsaparilla, 
and maiden hair. They discovered the balsam 
of the copal-tree to be an excellent remedy for 
fever, and astonished the French by their rapid 
cures of the most dreadful wounds produced by 
fire-arms. Their physicians ranked very high 



and were looked upon as inspired. The Natchez 
believed that, for every disease, the Great Spirit 
had provided a remedy in the shape of a plant, 
and, if supplicated in the proper manner, would 
point it out to the physician. They paid most 
liberal fees to the physician in case of success, 
but frequently put him to death if the patient 
died, believing that it was the doctor's fault if 
he did not find the remedy. 

Early History of Medicine. Very little is 
known of the history of the practice of medicine 
in the early colonial days, as the documents of 
public interest were written in foreign tongTies 
and have been hopelessly entombed in the 
archives of distant lands. Many physicians who 
came to this colony had the sole object of acquir- 
ing a fortune and then returning to their Euro- 
pean homes. The gradual development of medi- 
cine in New Orleans is of peculiar interest. The 
first physicians, who came with Iberville, were 
army surgeons. In 1722, when New Orleans 
became the capital, civilian physicians from 
various parts of France became residents of the 
colony and were the first to establish the con- 
tract system of annual payment. When Don 
O'Reilly took possession, his troops were pro- 
vided with Spanish army surgeons. Shortly 



100 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



after, Spanish pliysicians came to the colony, 
and, like the Frenchmen, entered into the con- 
tract practice, which was continued long after 
the purchase of Louisiana. This contract system 
has, within the last fifty years, been almost 
superseded by the "Mutual Benevolent Society" 
practice, which exists to this very day in New 
Orleans. When their means permitted it, the 
first white residents of New Orleans sent their 
sons to Europe to acquire an education. A 
number of them studied medicine in the most 
celebrated schools and returned to practice in 
their native land. Later, some of the sons of 
Louisiana attended the schools of the East to 
acquire the English language, and while there 
obtained their medical education. After the 
purchase of Louisiana, many physicians from 
other states and from various European coun- 
tries came to New Orleans, and entered perma- 
nently into the ranks of the profession, proving 
an honor to it. 

The First Medical College. In 1834, a Medical 
College was founded liy Doctors Luzenberg, 
Mackie, Barton, Htmt, Cenas, and Harrison, 
these talented men having for a clinic the gTeat 
Charity Hospital. They soon rendered it un- 
necessary for medical students to visit other 
states and foreign lands to acquire the qualifica- 
tions and title of Doctor of Medicine. A few 
years previous to the Civil War, the New Or- 
leans School of Medicine entered into the field 
of education, but the war and financial troubles 
resulting therefrom caused the school to close 
after a short but brilliant career. During the 
war, many of the physicians proved their 
patriotism by abandoning their practice to 
follow the Confederate Army as surgeons. Their 
skill and the success of their operations will 
never be forgotten by the soldiers who wore the 
gray. The alumni of the schools of medicine of 
New Orleans have deservedly obtained such a 
reputation, both at home and abroad, that there 
is no longer need to seek outside their ranks for 
professors to fill any vacancy in the Medical 
Department of Tulane. 

The Homeopathic School. The School of 
Hahnemann has been represented in New Or- 
leans since 18-H. The pioneer was Doctor Taxile 
of Toulon, France. Dr. Jules Matthieu was the 
first American member of this school. Doctor 
W. H. Holcombe was its most prominent repre- 
sentative in recent years. 

Eminent Physicians. Physicians of the past 



and the present have contended with the 
gigantic forces of disease and devoted their 
scientific attainments to the preservation of the 
health of the community. Pages could be written 
of their noble lives. Doctor C. A. Luzenberg 
came to New Orleans in 1829 and revolutionized 
medical practice of that time in Louisiana. 
Doctor Warren Stone was the first physician in 
New Orleans to use chloroform for the allevia- 
tion of human suffering. Doctor T. Gr. Richard- 
son was one of the most prominent physicians in 
New Orleans. He served as surgeon of General 
Bragg 's staff during the Civil War. From 1865 
to 1885, he was dean of the medical department 
of Tulane University. After his death in 1892, 
his wife erected to him a noble memorial in the 
splendidly fitted medical college on Canal street. 
Doctor Quitman Kohnke was one of the pioneers 
of the modern doctrine of the transmission of 
yellow fever by the mosquito. He illustrated 
his lectures on the subject by lantern slides. 
Had his labors in this direction received fuller 
recognition at the time, the experience of 1905 
would have been impossible. He lived long 
enough to see the universal acceptance of this 
doctrine, and quarantine practice modified in 
obedience to its teachings. 

Medical Societies. The Orleans Parish Med- 
ical Society, which has a large membership, was 
organized in 1878, by a number of physicians 
who were desirous of affiliating with the State 
and National Associations. The Pan-American 
.Medical Society was organized in March, 1914, 
to promote a high standard of professional 
efficiency and to develop a more thorough under- 
standing among the laity, of the study and 
knowledge of preventive medicine. 

Medicine To-Day. To-day, New Orleans 
boasts of a gi'eat number of eminent surgeons 
and physicians, whose reputations are inter- 
national. Many of them are recognized as 
authorities on medical topics, and the gold 
medal for the greatest achievement in scientific 
research in 1913 was awarded to a New Orleans 
physician. 

TOPICS: Inilian Medicine Men; Early History of Medicine; 
Development of Medicine; The Homeopathic School. 

REFERENCES: Mumf ord 's Narrative of Medicine in 
America; Parks 's History of Medicine; Dr. Joseph 
.Jones's Medical and Surgical Memoirs; J. C. Warren's 
History of Medical Education from the Most Remote to 
the Most Recent Times; American Medical Association 
Journals; Department of Archives. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



101 



SECTION 3. BANKING. 



History of Banking. Louisiana owes its 
foundation to a bank, the Mississippi Company, 
wliicli was tlie Royal Bank of France. Tlie 
failure of John Law's scheme caused great 
financial distress among the colonists. Banking 
in Louisiana- under the French domination 
proved a failure, but after the transfer to Spain, 
the system somewhat improved. When the 
United States took possession of Louisiana, Gov- 
ernor Claiborne, recognizing the poor financial 
conditions, established the Louisiana Bank in 
1804. Julian Poydras was its president and 
John McDonogh a director. Two banks were 
established in 1811. One of these, the Louisiana 
Planters' Bank, was organized for the con- 
venience and advancement of the agricultural 
interests of the Territory. The success of this 
plan of raising money for the development of 
the planting interests of Louisiana led to the 
formation of a number of improvement banks. 
Among these was the Gas Company Bank, 
formed for the purpose of introducing gas into 
New Orleans. The Canal Bank was chartered 
for the construction of a canal in the American 
portion of the city, and the Carrollton Bank for 
the building of the New Orleans and Carrollton 
street railway. The Commercial Bank was or- 
ganized for the purpose of providing New Or- 
leans with waterworks. The Mechanics and 
Traders ' Bank was formed for the benefit of the 
manufacturing and mechanical interests. 

When the panic of 1837 struck New Orleans, 
fourteen out of the fifteen banks suspended 
specie payment, thereby forfeiting their char- 
ters. In 1839, the Legislature, recognizing the 
fact that the suspension of the banks was due 
to the general derangement of the monetary 
system, reinstated them in their charter rights. 
Poor financial conditions continued until 1845.' 
The banking history from 1845 until 1860 was 
devoid of incident. In 1860, Louisiana stood 
fourth in banking capital and second in specie 
holdings. 

During the Civil War, deposits shrunk and 
the banks had to accept Confederate notes. Gen- 
eral B. F. Butler insisted that the banks had 
violated their charter by suspending specie pay- 
ment, and introducing Confederate notes as cur- 
rency. During his and Banks' administration, 



there were frequent quarrels between the bank 
officials and the military authorities. A large 
number of claims resulted, and much litigation 
grew out of them. In 1877, in 1893, and in 1907, 
New Orleans suffered from the general depressed 
conditions of the money market. 

The New Orleans Clearing House. The New 
Orleans Clearing House was organized in May, 
1872. In all eases of financial trouble, the Clear- 
ing House has proved a great advantage to the 
banks and the business community, for its cer- 
tificates are accepted everywhere, thereby re- 
lieving strained financial conditions. 

The Present Banking System. There are 
now twelve banks in New Orleans. The Whit- 
ney-Central leads with assets of $26,476,776.92. 
The Hibernia is second with $20,981,244.13. 
The oldest bank is the Canal Bank and Trust 
Company, established in 1831. It went into 
liquidation in 1843, but reorganized shortly 
afterwards. 

The contribution of the banking business to 
public wealth is measured by the facilities it 
offers for the transaction of business, and by the 
extension of credit in various forms. As a rule, 
the banks are required to keep a large reserve. 
In New Orleans, the conditions are liberal, the 
reserve being 25 °/o of their assets, of which only 
8% is in cash. 

Insurance Companies. The largest life and 
fire insurance comiDanies of the United States 
have branch offices in New Orleans. The home 
companies do a large business, not only for the 
city and the state, but for many neighboring 
states. 

The Homestead Associations. The home- 
stead associations have done a vast amount of 
good in facilitating the purchase and building 
of hundreds of houses for people of moderate 
means. They have encouraged the spirit of 
economy and have enabled many families to 
own their homes, who would not have been able 
to do so but for their help, 

TOPICS: History of Banking; Tlie Clearing House. 
REFERENCES: Eightor's History. 



102 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



SECTION 4. TRADES. 



History. Very little lias been written on this 
subject in New Orleans, because, before the Civil 
War, the crafts and trades received but scant 
attention in Louisiana, for the wealth of the 
people was invested almost exclusively in agri- 
culture, and New Orleans was a commercial 
center. 

Slavery had a tendency to crowd mechanics 
out of New Orleans, and in ante-bellum days the 
general desire was to have mechanical woi-k 
done by negi'o slaves, many of whom were skilled 
workmen. They often paid their owners for the 
privilege of hiring themselves to others, and by 
this means accumulated enough money to pur- 
chase their freedom. 

The white laborers from 1860 to 1865 con- 
sisted of men over fifty, boys, women, and men 
of military age, exempted because of physical 
weakness or wounds. Industries calling for 
white skilled labor were but comparatively little 
develo]3ed in 1860. When the War ended in 1865, 
the labor system of the South was disorganized. 
One of the results of the War was to awaken the 
South to a full realization of her lack of knowl- 
edge concerning mechanical and other industrial 
pursuits. By 1880, with the help of the United 
States Grovernment, mechanical and industrial 
colleges were established in the Southern States. 
The splendid work was begun which has re- 
sulted in the preparation of many men and 
women for industrial service in the country. 
These schools were ridiculed by thoughtless 



people and by some of the leading journals. 
Manual labor, among the white population, was 
considered more respectable, and as Northern 
and European capital began to flow into 
Louisiana, skilled labor found its way into 
the city. 

Orgajiization of Labor. The history of New 
Orleans' trade unionism begins in the first 
decade of the nineteenth century, when an as- 
sociation of printers was formed in 1810. From 
1830 to 18.36, local imious of printei's were or- 
ganized in New Orleans. The immediate cause 
of all organizations or wage labor has been and 
is the rise of prices in the cost of living. Fol- 
lowing the natural trend, here, as elsewhere, 
combinations formed among the capitalists and 
workmen. The problems that have arisen from 
these combinations have steadily multiplied, 
and have become one of the chief features in our 
state and national government. Many of the 
problems have been solved through the efforts 
of trade unions. The adequate wage scale pro- 
tects capital, to some degree, from profitless 
competition. The evils of child labor have been 
lessened by legislation. To-day, a mechanic is 
not looked down upon, and jDarents are willing, 
even anxious, to have their children trained in 
some good trade, knowing "that skilled labor 
secui'es steady employruent. 

TOPICS: Trades; Past Conditions; Present Conditions. 
REFERENCES: Archives of the Cabildo and City Hall. 



CHAPTER XL 



Charitable Institutions. 



SECTION 1. HOSPITALS. 



A spirit of generosity has always been char- 
acteristic of the South and of New Orleans, in 
particular. The poor and the suffering, the aged 
and the infirm, the widowed and the orphaned, 
have always found and, may it be hoped, always 
will find a tender chord of sympathy in the 
hearts of Orleanians. Looking back to the his- 
tory of Bienville's time, we find the Ursuline 
nuns nursing the sick, caring for many Indian 
girls, and for French children orphaned by the 
Indian war. 

Charity Hospital. The oldest charitable in- 
stitution in the Mississippi Valley is the Charity 
Hospital, founded by an humble sailor, one Jean 
Louis, who, by trade and barter on his many 
voyages, had accumulated a fortune. This sum, 
$2,500, though small, 
judged according to pres- 
ent-day standards, was 
sufficient to purchase a 
building which was fitted 
up as the "Hospice des 
Pauvres." It stood upon 
the west side of Rampart 
Street, between St. Peter 
and Toulouse. The low, 
marshy ground rendered 
this a very unsuitable lo- 
cation for a hospital. The 
"Hospice des Pauvres," 
however, continued its 

humanitarian mission until destroyed by a hur- 
ricane in 1779. Every one felt the disaster and 
few were able to offer aid to the unfortunate 
patients who roamed the streets in search of 
shelter. No concerted action was taken for their 
relief until 1784, when Don Almonaster y Roxas, 
the great benefactor of the colony, erected on the 
same site, a new building of brick and mortar. It 
was called the Hospital of St. Charles, in honor 
of the king of Spain. Although Don Almonaster 
had built the new hospital at his own cost and 
annually bestowed upon it a sufficient sum for 




CHARITY HOSPITAL. 



its maintenance, he was bitterly opposed by 
members of the Cabildo. A communication from 
the king approved his action and declared him 
to be the "founder, patron, and endower" of the 
institution. 

After the transfer of Louisiana to the United 
States, the affairs of the hospital passed from 
the hands of the Cabildo to the more practical 
management of American mayors and council- 
men. A great fire totally destroyed the Hos- 
pital of St. Charles in 1809. All the patients 
were rescued and were quartered in a private 
residence, which continued to be used for this 
purpose until 1814. The square boimded by 
Canal, Common, Dryades, and Baronne was pur- 
chased as the site for a new building. Here, the 
institution entered upon 
the third stage of its 
career as the New Or- 
leans Charity Hospital. 

In 1830, it was re- 
moved to its present loca- 
tion in Tulane Avenue be- 
tween Freret and How- 
ard Streets, where, at the 
time, only .the central 
building was erected. 
Built of solid masonry, 
this substantial structure 
has withstood the rav- 
ages of time. It has been 
so added to and extended that now the whole 
square and parts of those adjoining are covered 
with the buildings of the institution. 

Connected with the Charity Hospital is one 
of the best equipped and most complete hos- 
pitals for children in the United States. It was 
donated by Mrs. Deborah Milliken at a cost of 
$100,000. The Sisters of Charity, trained by life 
service in the work, have had charge of the hos- 
pital since 1834. Now, however, although they 
still care for the sick committed to the institu- 
tion and train the lay nurses, the management 



104 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



has been taken out of their hands and given to 
a "Superintendent." 

The ambulance service was added in 1885 
and now, by means of the automobile am- 
bulances, a patient can be rushed from any part 
of the city to the hospital within a few minutes 
after the call has been made. Two internes 
always accompany the ambulance and fre- 
quently, in case of accident, they administer all 
necessary aid. Many a life that hung upon a 
slender thread has been saved l)y iunnediate 
medical assistance. 

The Charity Hospital is open to the medical 
students of Tulane University, who • thereby 
have exceptional opportunity for the study of 
actual cases. All persons who cannot afford 
treatment in pay institutions are received at the 
Charity Hospital; there are wards for the col- 
ored people as well as for the white, and the care 
of the best physicians and nurses is bestowed 
upon them. Cases of smallpox are not admitted, 
as there is a special hospital for persons suffer- 
ing from that very contagious disease. 

Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital. As 
the science of medicine progresses, there is a 
tendency among physicians to specialize in some 



particular branch. In order that those who can 
ill afford treatment by a specialist may not be 
debarred from such advantages, the Eye, Ear, 
Nose, and Throat Hospital was opened in 1889, 
where gratuitous treatment is given. The num- 
bers who grasp this opportunity are large and 
increase from year to year, especially as so many 
children are found sutfering from adenoids, the 
removal of which greatly improves their con- 
dition. 

The United States Marine Hospital. In 1802, 
the United States Government established a hos- 
pital for sailors at New Orleans. No building 
was provided, and the sick, by special arrange- 
ment, were cared for in the Charity Hospital. 
The present location on Henrj^ Clay Avenue and 
Tchoupitoulas Street was secured by authoriza- 
tion of Congress in 1882. There is a group of 
buildings comprising the wards, office building, 
houses for the surgeons, and laundry, etc. Any 
American seaman in need of treatment is re- 
ceived at the hospital, as is also any foreign sea- 
man bringing a request from his consul. The 
hospital belongs to the Federal Government and 
is managed by the United States Public Health 
Service. 



SECTION 2. ASYLUMS. 



Poydras Asylum. About the time that Lou- 
isiana was ceded to Spain, there arrived in New 
Orleans a young French refugee from San Do- 
mingo. His only assets seem to 
have been a handsome face and 
pleasing manner. What little cap- 
ital he could command, was invested 
in peddler's stock with which he 
ascended the coast to try his fortune. 
Enterprise and thrift were well re- 
warded, for soon we hear Julien 
Poydras, the one-time peddler, 
spoken of as the richest man in the 
Spanish settlement, a successful 
merchant, planter, and banker. In 
the midst of his wealth, he did not 
forget the jDoverty and struggle of 
earlier days; he gave unstintedly 
oiit of his abundance to help those in need. The 
city of his adoption received a large part of his 
munificent benefactions. Here, by the donation 




of a large lot and house in Poydras street, he 
founded in 1816 the first orphan asylum in the 
state. The Legislature appropriated $4,000 for 
its benefit. It sheltei-ed fourteen 
children the first year; but there- 
after the number rapidly increased. 
The asylum was founded for girls, 
with the provision that any de- 
serving girl, whether an orphan 
or not, should be received by 
the institution. The business, sec- 
tion of the city gradually spread 
until it embraced Poydras Street, 
after which, the asylum was 
moved to its present location on 
Magazine Street and Peters 
Avenue. The administration is con- 
ducted by a board of directresses. 
The orphanage is supported by revenues 
from property left by Julien Poydras for that 
purpose. 



JULIAN POYDEAS. 

■ — Courtesy La. State Museum, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



105 



St. Mary's Orphan Asylum. The history 
of tliis institution dates back to the year 1835. 
The Sisters of Cliarity have tlie care of the cliil- 
dren,and the only condition of admission is that 
of orphanage. A board manages the business 
affairs of the institution, which is supported 
partly by private contributions and partly by 
revenues from property. 

New Orleans Female Orphan Asylum. The 
Sisters of Charity withdrew from the Poydras 
Asylum to establish an institution of their own 
for the purpose of "receiving, harboring, nurs- 
ing, raising, mahitaining, and educating desti- 
tute female orphans 
under tlie age of fif- 
teen." The girls were 
to be entirely under the 
control of the sisters 
until they readied their 
majority, or were mar- 
ried. In front of the 
asylum is a triangle 
converted in to a park 
graced by the first mon- 
ument ever erected to 
the virtues and benefac- 
tions of a woman. This 
is the statue of "Mar- 
garet," whose interest- 
ing history is intimately 
connected with that of 
the asylum she be- 
friended. 

Margaret Haughery, 
of Irish origin, came to 
New Orleans from Bal- 
timore. Left alone in 
the world by the deaths 
of her husband and child, 
she obtained employment in the Poydras Asylum. 
When the Sisters of Charity removed to their 
own establishment, Margaret went with them to 
manage the dairy. Soon after, she established and 
conducted a profitable bakery, so as to diminish 
the cost of bread used by the asylum. With little 
education, she mastered and directed the success- 
ful management of a large manufactory of flour, 
while personally aiding in the care of the largest 
female orphan asylum in the city. Her charities 
were numerous and bestowed without ostentation. 

St. Elizabeth's House of Industry. In con- 
nection with their Female Orphan Asylum, the 
Sisters of Charity opened in 1855 a branch in 




MARGARET'S MONUMENT, 
In F'ront of N. O. Female Orhpan Asylum, the Model Orphanage of the City. 
— Courtesy Southern Pacific R. R. 



Napoleon Avenue to receive girls over twelve 
years of age. Here, they are given an industrial 
education, preparing them to make their way in 
the world. The institution, through the ex- 
quisite needlework, fine laundering, and other 
industries of the inmates, is largely self-support- 
ing, although valuable property belongs to the 
asylum. Many a young lady is proud to say that 
her trousseau has been made at St. Elizabeth's. 
St. Vincent's Infant Asylum. Another branch 
of the Female Asylum, conducted by the Sisters 
of Charity, is the St. Vincent's Infant Asylum 
established in 1862. The kindergarten, nurseries, 
an4 dormitories are in- 
teresting sights and 
models of neatness. 
After the age of seven 
years, the children are 
no longer retained at 
this asylum; the girls 
are sent to the asylum 
in Camp Street, and the 
boys to some other in- 
stitution. 

Asylum of Destitute 
Orphan Boys. A society 
for the ' ' Relief of Desti- 
tute Orphan Boys" was 
organized by members of 
the Presbyterian Church. 
About 1841, the build- 
ings erected for the good 
work were destroyed by 
fire. John McDonogh 
came to the rescue of 
the society with $100,- 
000 with which the pres- 
ent house in St. Charles 
Avenue was built. 
Seventh Street Protestant Orphans' Home. 
The terrible yellow fever epidemic of 1853 left 
so many orphaned children that the asylums of 
the city were taxed beyond their capacity. To 
relieve conditions, the Howard Association de- 
voted a fund of $5,000 toward a new asylum; 
this was supplemented from other sources, and 
the outcome was the Seventh Street Protestant 
Orphans' Home. Both boys and girls are re- 
ceived by this institution. 

Jewish Widows' and Orphans' Home. The 
Hebrews of the city maintain a well kept home 
for the widows and orphans of their faith. In 
1888, the present spacious and substantial build- 



106 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



ing ou the corner of St. Charles and Peters Ave- 
nues was occupied by the ' ' Home. ' ' The society 
that controls the institution dates back to 1855. 

St. Anna's Asylum. St. Anna 's Asylum was 
founded in 1850 by Dr. W. N. Mercer in memory 
of his daughter, Anna. Its object is the relief 
of impoverished gentlewomen, but small chil- 
dren whose mothers are inmates of the institu- 
tion are also recipients of its beneficence. 

Episcopal Home. The Sisters of the Protest- 
ant Episcopal Church conduct a well managed 
liome for girls in Jackson Avenue. 

The Soldiers' Home. The Soldiers' Home, 
sometimes called Camp NichoUs, as it was 
founded during the administration of Governor 
F. T. NichoUs, is situated on the banks of Bayou 
St. John. It is a retreat for maimed and dis- 
abled Confederate veterans. The board of 
directors for the Home consists of five member.** 



from the Association of the Army of Tennessee, 
five from the Association of the Army of North- 
ern Virginia, and five appointed by the Governor 
of Louisiana. 

The Touro-Shakespeare Almshouse. Those 
whose poverty and infirmities make them objects 
of public charity find shelter at the Touro- 
Shakespeare Almshouse. 

Other Institutions. Several institutions for 
needy colored people are conducted in the city, 
one of the most notable being the Tomy Lafon 
Orphan Boys' Asylum on Gentilly Road. 

There are many other institutions in the city, 
whose object is the alleviation of suffering. 

TOPICS: Section 1, Hospitals; Section 2, Asylums. 

REFERENCES: Standard History of New Orleans, Eightor; 
History and Present Conditions of New Orleans (1880), 
Waring and Cable; Cyclopedia of Louisiana, Fortier; 
Guide Book. 



CHAPTER XII. 



Education. 



SECTION 1. COLONIAL EDUCATION. 



Father Cecil's School for Boys. The early 
history of New Orleans was so tilled with the 
struggle for existence that little time or energy 
was devoted to education. There were forests 
to he cleared, homes to he built, sickness and 
attacks of Indians to be guarded against, and 
an ever-increasing number of unworthy or 
worthless colonists to be provided for. Amidst 



such unsettled conditions, neither the governor 
nor individuals could turn their attention to 
schools. In 1724, Father Cecil, a Capuchin 
monk, opened a school for boys near the St. 
Louis Cathedral. He was the first teacher in 
Louisiana and was successful in imparting a 
fairly good elementary education to the youth 
of the day. 



THE URSULINES. 



Bienville Secures the Services of the Ursu- 
lines. Father Cecil was offering educational 
opportunities to the boys, but a generation of 
girls was growing up with only the limited train- 
ing of the home circle. Bienville realized this 



mended and their services secured in 1726. Al- 
though Bienville was no longer governor when 
the Ursulines arrived in Louisiana, he deserves 
the credit of having established the first girls' 
school in the colony. 




THREE HOMES OF THE URSULINES. 



and consulted the Jesuit priest. Father Beaubois, Establishment of the Ursulines. Eleven 
about securing teachers for the girls. The Ursu- sisters under the direction of Mother Tranche- 
line nuns who were conducting flourishing and pain embarked at Lorient, France, on February 
well patronized schools in France were recom- 22, 1727. After a long and hazardous voyage, 



108 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



they reached the land of their adoption on 
August 7th of the same year. Joyful crowds 
assembled on the river banks and along the 
streets to welcome them, and every courtesy was 
extended to them. Governor Perrier and his 
wife were most cordial to the Sisters and saw 
them installed in Bienville's house, which was 
the best in the colony. Here, they were to re- 
main until their own convent could be erected. 

Treaty With the Company of the Indies. A 
treaty was drawn up between the Company of 
the Indies, then in control of Louisiana, and the 
Ursulines before the latter left France. The 
provisions were that in return for the care of 
the hospital and the education of girls, the nuns 
were to receive from the com,pany, a convent 
and a plantation and 500 livres (livre=18i/'2 
cents) each, besides having the expense of the 
voyage paid. They were guaranteed 600 livres 
until they could realize something from their 
plantation, and this contract did not bind them 
to remain in the colony should they find it dis- 
tasteful. 

Removed to Their Convent. There is no 
record of any Sisters having returned to France. 
All were satisfied with their work in a strange 
land. Their convent on Chartres Street was com- 
pleted in 1734 and they took possession of it 
with gi'eat ceremony. The beloved Superioress, 
Mother Tranchepain, had ended her days of use- 
fulness, but Bienville, patron and benefactor of 
the Sisters, had returned to the colony as gov- 
ernor for the third time and took an active part 
in the ceremony. At the time of this change of 
residence, many day scholars, twenty boarders, 
three parlor boarders, and three orphans were 
under the care of the nuns. 

System of Education. Religious classes were 
conducted for two hours every day for the ben- 
efit of Indian and negro women. The Sisters, 
through the influence of religion and education, 
sought to uplift the inferior races and lead them 



into the ways of civilization. The daughters of 
the colonists were taught languages, history, 
literature, some science, mathematics, and the 
art of letter-writing. Great emphasis was laid 
upon instruction in music and sewing, accom- 
plishments required of every girl of the time. 
Nimble fingers that could lighten dull hours 
with gay music or fashion dainty garments, 
made their owners more attractive helpmates. 
Wives were scarce, though, and so readily did 
the girls exchange the duties of the classroom 
for those of the household that Sister Madeleine 
writes, ' ' Henceforth no girl was allowed to marry 
without being first instructed by the Nuns." 

Influence in Colony. This instruction bore 
fruit tliroughout the entire colony. The girls 
carried from the convent to the home circle 
polish, charm and refinement, the result of edu- 
cation, and seldom found in the rough surround- 
ings of pioneer life. 

Lack of School for Boys. As a result of this 
training, the women far surpassed the men in 
culture, for the latter had no means of obtaining 
higher education without going to Europe. The 
fundamentals were taught in a few primary 
schools, but Bienville, realizing the lack of 
opportunity for young men in Louisiana, 
petitioned the government to establish a college 
for boys in New Orleans. According to his 
letter, the sons of wealthy parents were reared 
in luxury and idleness, utterly ruinous to char- 
acter, or at great expense were sent to France 
to be educated, where they acquired a distaste 
for their colonial homes. He represented that 
many persons residing in Vera Cruz, would be 
glad of the advantages offered by such a college 
and would helj) to maintain it. The government, 
however, considered Louisiana too remote and 
too insignificant to warrant any such establish- 
ment. So it was not until after the Americans 
assumed control of the colony, that a college for 
boys was opened 



SPANISH SCHOOLS. 



Interest Manifested by Spanish Governors. 

In 1768, Louisiana passed under the control of 
Spain. Unlike the French government, the 
Spanish authorities manifested some interest in 
education. Ulloa was a highly cultured man, 
but failed, through his unpopularity, to benefit 
the colony. 'Eeilly and his successors fostered 



learning in the colony, but still no institution of 
higher education was founded. Many a debonair 
Spanish official married a convent-trained girl, 
thus forming a friendship for the Ursulines. 
The Nuns' school was well patronized under this 
regime and they received several Spanish ladies 
into their convent. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



109 



Spanish School Founded. An effort to make 
the use of the Spanish language more universal 
in the colony, and to train the youth according 
to Spanish ideals, resulted in the government 
ordering a school to he estahlished in New Or- 
leans in 1772. The government selected as 
founder and director the distinguished scholar, 
Don Andreas Lopez de Armesto, with whom 
were associated three other eminent teachers. 
Despite the weight such names carried, the 
school was never popular, proving an utter 
failure. 

People's Distrust of Spanish Schools. The 
Louisianians, tossed from one king to another, 
felt intense resentment against the Spanish and 
clung with fierce pride to their own customs and 
languages. Although Spanish was used for all 
official proceedings, French was the language of 



the home, the chuch, and the school. Complaint 
was made to Spain that merchants refused to 
keep their books in any language but French. 
Even the influence of just and politic rulers like 
Unzaga, Galvez, and Miro, was not sufficient to 
stamp out this prejudice. The Spanish school 
was, therefore, not well attended, never having 
had more than thirty pupils, which number 
dwindled down to eight or ten after a fire had 
destroyed the original building. 

French Schools. Those who could afford to 
do so, sent their children to France to be edu- 
cated; but there were eight French schools 
where several hundred profited by the instruc- 
tion. Many refugees from San Domingo, who 
Oldened little schools to eke out a livelihood, 
received staunch support from the French 
families. 



SECTION 2. EARLY YEAES OF AMERICAN RULE. 



Private Schools. The influx of Americans, 
after the purchase in 1803, caused a greater de- 
mand for schools. As there was no system of 
free schools, this need was met by a number of 
teachers, who conducted private schools at mod- 
erate iDrices. According to the advertisements 
in the old newspaper files, learning flourished in 
the Faubourg Ste. Marie (the American quar- 
ter), where there were also evening schools and 
summer sessions. 

Discipline. Frequently these pioneers of 
education in American New Orleans were men 
who exacted the most rigid discipline from their 
scholars by means of the dunce cap, the rod, and 
in some extreme cases by enforced kneeling on 
brick dust and tacks. 



Course of Study. The subjects accentuated 
then were almost as different from the present 
day curriculum as was the mode of discipline. 

English, French, and other langaiages, writ- 
ing, arithmetic, geogTaphy, history, mythology, 
chronology are mentioned in all advertisements 
while "embroidery, print and crape work, 
French darning and every kind of fancy work, 
as well as plain sewing and marking" are speci- 
fied for girls. No young lady's education was 
considered complete without music and da'ncing. 
These were frequently taught by special teach- 
ers who went from house to house and also gave 
lessons in "deportment," that is, the correct 
manner of entering a parlor, of standing, of sit- 
ting, of addressing persons. 



COLLEGE OF ORLEANS. 



Foundation. American legislators were 
more impressed with the necessity for public 
education than the French or Spanish had been, 
but they made the mistake of establishing too 
many academies and colleges instead of elemen- 
tary schools. The most noteworthy of these 
was the College of Orleans, opened in 1805, 
where many prominent men received their 
education, among them being Gayarre, the his- 
torian. 



Course of Study and Discipline. The course 
of study was comprehensive, including Greek, 
French, Latin, English, Spanish, arithmetic, 
algebra, geometry, mechanics, history and 
literature. Interest in composition was stimu- 
lated by literary exercises. Poetic as well as 
prose composition was encourged and, occa- 
sionally, a paper published verses by some en- 
terprising student. Lessons in music, dancing, 
and fencing were given those who paid extra. 



110 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



Life at the College of Orleans was not luxu- 
rious; the rising sun found the boys about their 
tasks ; a half loaf of dry bread constituted break- 
fast. 

Support of College. As there was no definite 
arrangement for tlie support of the college, its 
finances were very unsettled. To the small and 
irregular appropriations by the Legislature, 
were added funds from two lotteries established 
for this purpose. Even these sources of revenue 
proved insufficient to maintain a flourishing in- 
stitution, and the proceeds from tlie licenses 
granted to gambling houses was utilized. 

Decline. The College of Orleans flourished 
for about twenty years, but with the appoint- 
ment as principal of Lakanal, one of the parties 
who caused the death of Louis XVI., the school 



began to decline. Parents refused to commit 
their children to the guidance of a regicide and 
the College of Orleans passed out of existence. 
Its failure was also the result of injudicious regu- 
lation of the terms of admission. Parents, who 
could afford to do so, were required to pay for 
their sons' tuition; but many sons of destitute 
parents were admitted without charge. These 
pupils were dissatisfied, because they received 
the sobriquet of charity students from the boys. 
"Public Schools." In 1826, the college of 
Orleans was supplanted by one central and two 
primary schools. Tliough supposedly public 
schools, gratuitous instruction was limited to 
fifty pupils in each school. To the revenue ob- 
tained from the gambling houses was added 
about $3,000 annually from theatre licenses. 



SECTION 3. PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. 



Louisiana was far behind the other states of 
the Union in organizing a system of public 
schools, because the idea of self-taxation for 
educational purposes was entirely new to its 
people. However, when Americans from other 
states began to form a large proportion of tlie 
population, the question of taxation for school 
support was agitated more fully. 

Accordingly, the public school system of New 
Orleans was inaugurated by the Legislature of 
1841, which decreed that "the councils of the 
different municipalities of New Orleans are 
authorized and required to establish within their 
respective limits one or more public schools for 
the free instruction of the children residing 
therein, to make such regulations as they judge 
proper for the organization, administration, and 
discipline of the said schools, and to levy a tax 
for the maintenance of the same. Every white 
child residing in a municipality shall be ad- 
mitted to and receive instruction therein." 

New Orleans was at that time divided into 
three distinct municipalities, the Vieux Carre, 
Faubourg Mariguy, Faubourg Ste. Marie, (See 
Chapter II. ) . Although these were united under 
one city government in the early fifties, the 
schools of the three districts continued to be con- 
trolled by three separate boards until the Civil 
War. 

These schools did not spring immediately 
into popular favor; but within a few j^ears their 



ultimate success was assured. The people were 
anxious to patronize schools supported by self- 
imposed taxes, and where the terms of admis- 
sion were the same to all. The American quarter 
in 1844 had three schools, eleven teachers, and 
615 pupils, but in the following year, to accom- 
modate an enrollment of 1,029 pupils, the niim- 
ber of schools was increased to six and the 
number of teachers to thirty-six. 

Public Schools in the State, 1845. Following 
the success of the new schools, the Legislature 
organized a similar system throughout the par- 
ishes, to be supported also by direct taxation. 
The eminent scholar, Alexander Dimitry, was aj)- 
pointed the first State Superintendent of Educa- 
tion and his influence was felt in New Orleans. 

Normal School, 1858. The gTowth of the 
system created a need for a normal scliool where 
efficient teachers could be trained for work in 
the elementary schools. This need was met in 
1858 by the establishment in New Orleans of the 
first normal school in the South. 

Civil War and Reconstruction. B. F. Butler, 
C*ommander of the Federal army of occupation 
in New Orleans during the Civil War, consoli- 
dated the four school districts under one board 
and one superintendent. There were to be a 
uniform system of grading and uniform text- 
books used throughout the city, which greatly 
facilitated the adjustment of pupils who moved 
from one district to another. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



111 



Education of Negroes. Troubles in educa- 
tional circles came with the Emancipation 
Proclamation. The Freedman's Bureau, created 
by the United States Government to assist liber- 
ated slaves, furnished free transportation for 
teachers and supplies and expended large sums 
for negro schools in New Orleans. Little objec- 
tion was raised to these schools, but the law 
passed by the "carpet-bag" Legislature of 1870, 
requiring the white schools to admit any negro 
children who would apply, caused great agita- 
tion and bitter feeling. Although there were 
but few actual admissions of colored children 
into the New Orleans schools, the furore did not 
subside until separate schools were provided for 
the two races. 

School Buildings. As soon as the race ques- 
tion in the schools was somewhat settled, atten- 
tion was directed to better buildings. Out of the 
funds left by John McDonogh for this purpose, 
six well-equipped schoolhouses were erected. 
This money has been utilized to meet the needs 
of increased enrollment until over thirty Mc- 
Donogh schools have been built. 

Overthrow of Reconstruction Government. 
The reconstruction government had spent vast 
sums of money for education, recklessly and in- 
judiciously extending educational advantages 
to hundreds of non-taxpaying negroes to the 
exclusion of the whites, who bore the burden of 
taxation. One of the first acts of the General 
Assembly, after the overthrow of "carpet-bag" 
rule and the assumption of power by the better 
element, which elected Francis T. Nicholls gov- 
ernor, was to provide for education. Louisiana, 
mercilessly crushed by four years of war and 
left burdened with a monstrous debt yearly in- 
creased by the extravagant rule of unscrupulous 
politicians, had been given a setback from which 
she rallied bravely, but the effects of which are 
felt even to the present time. 

William 0. Rogers — Warren Easton. Taking 
all of this into consideration and remembering 
the natural prejudice of Louisianians to a system 
of gratuitous education, the schools of New Or- 
leans rank very favorably with those of north- 
ern cities, where public schools are an inherited 
institution of the people and where revenue 
from taxation has been uninterrupted. William 
0. Rogers as Superintendent of the New Orleans 
schools, I'endered valuable service to this system 
for many years. From 1887 until his decease in 
1910j the position ^yas held by "Warren Easton, 



whose success is attested by the devotion of 
teachers and pupils during his long incumbency, 
and the universal reverence now accorded his 
memory. 

Within the past few years the schools have 
made wonderful advancement in organization. 

Management and Maintenance. Before the 
adoption of the new city charter, the schools 
were governed by a board of seventeen mem- 
bers, one elected from each ward in the city. 
Under that system each member of the board 
had the appointment of all teachers to schools 
in the ward which he represented. 

Since 1912, the New Orleans School Board 
has been distinct from and independent of the 
State Board. Under the new city charter, it 
consists of five members who serve gratuitously 
and have complete control of the affairs of the 
Public Schools. (See Chapter XV. for Mainten- 
ance of Schools.) 

Division of Schools. At present, the system 
includes elementary schools, secondary or high 
schools, and an industrial school for girls, which 
is soon to have its counterpart in a trade school 
for boys. The school year of about nine months 
is divided into terms, and promotions are made 
semi-annually, so that a retarded pupil has to 
repeat only one-half year's work. 

Elementary Schools. The elementary schools 
comprise kindergarten, primary grades, cover- 
ing four years work, and grammar grades, cov- 
ering four years more. Previous attendance at 
kindergarten is not a requisite for admission 
into the primary grades. Any child six years of 
age or over, who complies with the rules of the 
schools, is eligible. 

Departmental Teaching. The system of de- 
partmental teaching having been tested in sev- 
eral schools and found successful, was intro- 
duced throughout the city in 1913 in the sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades. Each teacher 
handling one principal subject and, according 
to conditions in the school, one or moi'e minor 
subjects, is enabled to attain greater knowledge 
of her specialty and more efficiency in imparting 
it. Arithmetic, English, History, Geography, 
and Literature are given more time and atten- 
tion in these grades than are other subjects. 
Some schools, thanlis to the generosity of their 
patrons or their own endeavor, are supplied with 
a stereopticon or a moving picture machine, by 
which historical and geographical facts can be 
pr^sei^ted pictorially to the increased interest 



112 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



and enjoyment of the classes in these subjects. 
Drawing and Music are taught in the scliools as 
necessary elements of culture. 

High Schools. The city supports three splen- 
did high schools. The Esplanade Girls' High 
School for the benefit of the girls below Canal 
Street, the Sophie B. Wright Girls ' High School 
in Napoleon Avenue, and the Warren Easton 
Boys' High School in Canal Street. Many more 
girls than boys attend high school. In 1914, the 
number of girls admitted to the two high schools 



have been erected through the generosity of 
philanthropic citizens. The new McDonogh 14 
building is as fine as any in the country. The 
Beauregard School in Canal Street is especially 
attractive because of the beautiful grounds that 
form a setting for its artistic architecture. The 
oldest public school building now in use in the 
city is Jackson School, named after the hero of 
the Battle of New Orleans. One portion was 
built in 1845, and around that various additions 
have been made. The frame buildings with 




WAEREN EASTON HIGH SCHOOL. 



— Courtesy of Board of Publio School Directors. 



was 1,554, while there were only 705 boys ad- 
mitted. The high school courses are elective 
and the pupils have a wide selection of subjects, 
as some are designed simply for a business 
course, others to prepare for normal or college. 
For graduation, the pupil must attain a certain 
number of points, that is, successfully complete 
so many subjects. The standard of graduation 
is being raised, so the number of points required 
is changed from year to year. 

Modern School Buildings. The three high 
schools are among the handsomest educational 
buildings in the city and their classroom ar- 
rangement and laboratory equipment equals 
that of most colleges. Many of the school houses 



huge rooms, wide galleries running the full 
length, and staircases on the outside, show they 
are not of very late date. 

Evening Schools. Three times a week, evening 
classes are given for the benefit of boys and girls 
over fourteen years of age, who have to work. 
There are also adult classes for those who did 
not receive an early education and for foreign- 
ers desirous of learning English. 

Manual Training. The aim of the present- 
day education is to develop the powers and 
activities of the child as far as practicable. To 
this end, manual training has been introduced 
for the boys of the seventh and eighth grades. 
The boy in measuring, planing, sawing, fitting, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



113 



and staining, has the pleasure of seeing the work 
advance from a piece of rough lumber to the 
finished product — a rack, an ornamental box, 
and sometimes a chair or table. 

Domestic Science. A domestic science and a 
domestic art department train the girls for the 
more practical affairs of life. One period, each 
week, is given to the girls of the seventh and 
eighth gTades. Under the supervision of a skilled 
teacher, the seventh A and eighth B girls in the 
domestic science department learn the chemical 



athletics for boys and girls help to insure 
straight bodies, active limbs, and well-developed 
lungs. Competitive games between teams 
selected from the different schools, assist in this 
Ijliysical development and create for many an 
interest in school affairs, which otherwise would 
be lacking. The boys ' games are basket-ball, in- 
door-ball, and base-ball, according to the season 
of the year. The girls play basket-ball and in- 
door-ball. The victorious teams are awarded 
trophies, which the school keeps for one year. 




McPONOGH NO. 14. 



-Courtesy of Board of Public School Directors. 



constituents of the materials they handle, the 
relative food values, and the most wholesome 
combinations. They are taught to plan a per- 
fect meal, perfect not only from an epicurean, 
but from a henitliful standpoint. 

Domestic Art. The girls of the seventh B 
and eighth A are taught sewing. This depart- 
ment has been most successful. The girls of the 
eighth A have made dresses for the closing ex- 
ercises of the grammar schools. 

Depaj-tment of Physical Training. As the 
happiness of an individual depends largely on 
his mental and physical well-being, proper train- 
ing of mind and body are essential to complete 
education. Daily calisthenic drills and class 



The "Spring Meet' in May is well attended and 
much enthusiasm prevails among the pupils, 
teachers, and parents. 

Department of Hygiene. To further insure 
the physical welfare of the community and the 
best possible hygienic conditions in the schools, 
the services of several competent physicians are 
secured. It is the duty of this department to 
instruct and supervise those in charge of the 
hygiene and sanitation of school buildings, to 
enforce the exclusion of contagious diseases 
from the schools, and to require from every child 
and teacher a certificate of vaccination. Its 
activities cover a much broader field in the med- 
ical inspection of pupils. Through, these ex.- 



114 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



aminations it has been found that many chil- 
dren, who were thought slow or even dull, were 
suffering from physical defects such as poor eye- 
sight, hearing, or adenoids. A careful examina- 
tion of the pupils' teeth proved a revelation to 
many parents, who were unaware of any defects. 
In most cases, they gave their immediate atten- 
tion to the matter, and those who could not 
afford to pay a dentist were given gratuitous 
treatment. 

Department of Attendance. There is a law 
in the State of Louisiana compelling children 
Isetween the ages of eight and fourteen to attend 
school. In order to enforce this law, the School 
Board of New Orleans has appointed officers 
whose duty it is to see that this law is carried 
out and to investigate cases of truancy. If the 
conditions do not improve, the children are 
brought before the Juvenile Court. 

Francis T. KichoUs Industrial School. A 
movement for industrial or vocational education 
has spread over the entire country and attracted 
attention in New Orleans. The aim is to offer 
to persons whose educational opportunities are 
limited, one, two, or three years of training in 
some trade or industry. The trained worker 
always commands a higher salary than the raw 
recruit. Those, who have finished courses at a 
trade or industrial school, are fitted to earn a 
livelihood in one field or another. The Francis 



T. Nicholls Industrial School for Girls, occupy- 
ing a handsome building similar to the new high 
schools, has been opened to girls over fourteen 
years of age, who have comiDleted the sixth 
grade of the elementary course or its equivalent. 
Girls above the age of seventeen, who have not 
completed the sixth grade may be admitted upon 
the approval of the Superintendent. The courses 
offered are dressmaking, home economics, gar- 
ment making, millinery, fine laundering, art 
needle work, design making. Commercial Arith- 
metic, and English. The school has proved so 
pojjular that other courses will be added as soon 
as the need arises and provision can be made for 
them. Many girls, who either had no aptitude 
for or time to devote to higher intellectual 
culture, have been equipped with the means of 
making their way in the world, where year after 
year greater skill is exacted in eveiy occupation. 
Delgado Central Trade School for Boys. 
Isaac Delgado bequeathed to the Public Schools 
of New Orleans a fund for a trade school for 
boys, which as nearly as possible, must be cen- 
trally located. This school has not yet been 
erected, but a department of Educational Re- 
search has been established to furnish the School 
Board with accurate data concerning the in- 
dustries, trades, and commercial activities of 
'■ New Orleans, so that the school, when opened, 
may best meet the needs of the communitv. 



SECTION 4. TULANE UNIVERSITY AND LOYOLA UNIVERSITY. 



Medical College of Louisiana. The history 
of Tulane University dates back to the founda- 
tion of the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834. 
This College was chartered the following year, 
and in 1836 issued the first degTees in medicine 
and science ever conferred in the southwest. 
Some of the most famous doctors in the country 
have added prestige to the institution by hold- 
ing chairs in the different l)ra.nches. 

University of Louisiana, 1845. The Consti- 
tution of 1845 provided for the establishment of 
a university in New Orleans, embracing the 
Medical College, to which were to be added law 
and academic departments. The law depart- 
ment then, as now, gave instruction in common 
and in civil law, with more stress on the latter. 
As the civil law of Louisiana differs so widely 



from that of other states, few students are drawn 
from these sources. Tlie academic department, 
never popular, ceased all instruction in 1859 and 
was not reopened until after the restoration of 
civil government in Louisiana. During the years 
of 1863, 1864, and 1865 (war times), the Univer- 
sity held no sessions. Through the strenuous 
efforts of a new board of administrators, the 
academic department was oioened in 1878 and 
sixty students matriculated. The following year 
the Legislature recognized the University of 
Louisiana in its three departments — medical, 
law, and academic, and pledged state aid to the 
amount of $10,000 annually. Such was the foun- 
dation on which Tulane University was built. 

Paul Tulane. Louis Tulane, father of Paul 
Tulane, was a Frenchman who had emigTated to 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



115 



San Domingo with his brother-in-law, a wealtliy 
planter, and slaveholder. The brother-in-law's 
entire family was exterminated during the in- 
surrection of the slaves, but Louis Tulane and 
his wife managed to escape in an open boat to 
the United States. They settled in Cherry 
Valley, near Princeton, New Jersey, and there 
Paul Tulane spent his boyhood. A cousin from 
France, touring the United States for his health, 
took the youth as "traveling companion." Most 
of the traveling, in those days, was done by 
steamboat, and the two descended the Missis- 
sippi to New Orleans, which so charmed the 
younger that he returned a few years later to 
make it his place of residence. Establishing 



dollars to the fund, which he intended to in- 
crease, but, as he died without a will, this inten- 
tion was never carried out. 

Tulane University, 1884. Tulane had not 
specified what should be done with the fund 
beyond that it should be devoted to the educa- 
tion of the white youth of Louisiana; so the ad- 
ministrators decided to establish an institution 
of higher learning. They entered into an agTee- 
ment with the State by which the University of 
Louisiana, with all its property, would become 
a part of the new institution, thenceforth to be 
known as Tulane University' of Louisiana. The 
$10,000 annually contributed by the state was 
to be withheld, but the property belonging to 




GIBSON- HALL, TULANE CAMPUS. 



— Courtesy of Tulane University. 



here a business for the sale of general supplies 
to planters and country merchants, he amassed 
a fortune. His charities were numerous, though 
so unostentatious as rarely to come to public 
notice. In 1873, he returned to New Jersey, 
where he died. Paul Tulane never forgot the 
city where most of his wealth had been accumu- 
lated; his generosity to it in the cause of educa- 
tion amply proved his devotion. In 1881, he 
donated all the property he then possessed in 
New Orleans, to the education of the white 
youth of Louisiana. A board of administrators 
selected from the most prominent men of the 
city, was chosen to execute the trust. In all, 
Tulane donated one million and fifty thousand 



the University was to be free from taxation, in 
return for which, the right of appointing to a 
scholarship was reserved to each senator and 
representative in the state. Colonel William 
Preston Johnston, a man of scholarly attain- 
ments and upright character, then president of 
the Louisiana State University at Baton Rouge, 
was selected as the first president of Tulane 
University. 

Courses Offered. At present, the University 
comprises the College of Medicine, with the 
schools of medicine, of pharmacy, of dentistry, 
of hygiene and tropical medicine, of post-gradu- 
ate medicine; the Department of Law, with the 
school of Louisiana Law and Common Law; the 



116 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



College of Arts and Sciences; the College of 
Technology, with schools of mechanical and 
electrical engineering, of civil and sanitary en- 
gineering, of chemistry, and chemical-sugar en- 
gineering, of architecture and architectural 
engineering. A business course has been 
established. 

Location. The University at tirst occupied 
the buildings of the University of Louisiana, 
which it had absorbed. Sufficient funds were 
given by Mrs. Ida Eichardson to erect and equip 
a modern building as a memoi-ial to her hus- 
band, who had long been connected with the 
medical department. The building was erected 
in 1904, facing Canal street, in the square be- 
tween Villere and Robertson, and until 1908 was 
known as the Richardson Memorial Medical 
School. In that year, 
however, the building 
was sold to the Hutch- 
inson Fund and the 
name "Richardson 
Memorial" was given 
to a building erected 
on the campus of Tu- 
lane University. Here, 
the first two years' 
instruction in medi- 
cine is given the 
students. The build- 
ings of the former 
University of Lou- 
isiana became too 
crowded for the grow- 
ing institution, which 
was removed to the 

present spacious grounds in St. Charles avenue, 
facing the pleasant prospect of Audubon Park. 
The cornerstone of the main building, known as 
Gibson Hall, was laid in 1894. Since then, many 
handsome and well-equipped structures have 
been added and form an imposing group on the 
campus. Many of them are donations of gen- 
erous patrons of education; such is the Tilton 
Memorial Library, the repository of the very 
valuable collection of books belonging to the 
University. 

Government. The student body of Tulane 
University is self-governed. Each of the four 
classes (freshman, sophomore, junior, and 
senior) of the academic department select a 
president, vice-president, and secretary. These 
twelve students form the Academic Board, of 




NEWCOMB COLLEGC. 



which the president of the senior class is ex- 
officio i:)resident. This court of honor is entrusted 
with nearly all matters of discipline, except 
neglect of work or absence. Its judgments are 
referred to the president of the University, who 
approves or sends them on to the faculty. That 
body seldom does more than ask the Board to 
reconsider a decision. This system, inculcating 
a certain amount of moral responsibility in each 
individual, has worked with admirable success. 

Sophie Newcomb. Mrs. Josephine Louise 
Newcomb, wishing to perpetuate the memory of 
her daughter, Sophie, founded a college for 
young women. The original fund of $100,000 
was entrusted to the administrators of the 
Tulane fund. The Sophie Newcomb Memorial 
College was opened in 1887 as a department of 
Tulane University. The 
courses offered are reg- 
ular collegiate work, 
the high standard of 
which ranks Newcomb 
among the best col- 
leges in the South. One 
of the most noteworthy 
features of the institu- 
tion is the School of 
Art, which covers a 
four years course, sup- 
plemented by post- 
graduate work. Draw- 
ing, painting, model- 
ing, art needle work, 
tapestry, jewelry, and 
pottery are some of the 
subjects comprised in 
this course. Newcomb pottery is far-famed for 
its beauty of outline and design. The exhibit 
of the Newcomb School of Art received the 
highest award at the Panama Exposition held 
in San Francisco in 1915. 

Educational Work of the Jesuits. Although 
the Jesuits had been in Louisiana since the 
earliest colonial days, they did not undertake 
educational work until after it became a state 
of the Union. The first college established with- 
in the present limits of the state by this illus- 
trious teaching order was at Grand Coteau in 
1835. Twelve years later, upon the invita- 
tion of Archbishop Blanc, they opened the 
College of the Immaculate Conception on the 
corner of Baronne and Common Streets in 
New Qrlesins* Adjoining the college building 



rtesy of Tulane University. 



The new ORLEANS BOOK 



117 



is one of the handsomest churches in the 
city. 

Loyola University. In 1904, the Jesuit 
Fathers opened a select school in the uptown 
section of the city, in St. Charles Avenue 
opposite Audubon Park. To this was soon added 
a collegiate course. The ambition of the Society 
for a Catholic University in the state was 
realized in 1912, when the Legislature granted 
them full powers to confer ' ' degTees in the arts 
and sciences and all the learned professions, 
such as are granted by other universities in the 
United States." Marquette Hall, a magnificent 
building in the Tudor-Gothic style of architec- 
ture, has been erected and equipped with up- 
to-date apparatus, for laboratory work. The 
buildings are to be grouped in the form of an 
open quadrangle; Marquette Hall to the rear, 
Thomas Hall, already completed, on the down- 
town side, and a church, for which magnificent 
plans have been made, to occupy the third side 
of the quadrangle. The University now offers, 




LOYOLA UNIVERSITY. 



besides an academic course, a pre-medical course, 
a law course, a course in pharmacy, and a course 
in dentistry. 

Seismic Observatory. The most interesting 
instrument in the excellent scientific equipment 
of the University, is the seismograph, one of the 
few in the country. The seismograph is an ap- 
paratus, which records vibrations of the earth. 
A cylinder, revolving by clockwork, moves a 
piece of carbonized paper on which two deli- 
cately poised needles trace parallel lines. These 
needles move from side to side witli any vibra- 
tion, causing the lines to be wavy. The instru- 
ment is so sensitive to the slightest vibration that 
it will be affected by an earthquake anywhere in 
the world. A special observatory, donated by 
W. B. Burke in memory of his son, houses this 
mechanical wonder. The seismograph is pro- 
tected from atmospheric disturbances by the 
double walls of the observatory and by a special 
little room of glass within the larger room. The 
instrument does not rest upon or touch any part 

- - , of the building, but is 

supported by an inde- 
pendent concrete column 
extending eight feet un- 
der ground. The Jesuits 
own the principal seis- 
mic observatories in the 
United States, and they 
have been asked to co- 
operate with the govern- 
ment in the compilation 
of seismic data. This 
university has also the 
equally wonderful and 
better known aiJ- 
paratus,the wireless 

— Courtesy of Loyola University, telegraph. 



SECTION 5. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



Convents. Several Catholic religious orders 
conduct splendid schools for girls. The Ursu- 
lines, the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, and the 
Dominicans have been qualified by the Legisla- 
ture to confer the degree of Bachelor of Arts. 

The Ursulines, having been forced to abandon 
their historic buildings in the. lower part of the 
city because the site was needed for a new levee, 



have erected a very imposing structure in State 
Street. 

The Ladies of the Sacred Heart have an 
Academy in St. Charles Avenue, just above Na- 
poleon Avenue. This order was founded in 
France in the beginning of the nineteenth cen- 
tury and, for over a hundred years, has success- 
fully been devoted to the education of young 



118 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



ladies; their schools, established on all conti- 
nents, have gained for them world-wide renown 
as cultural educators and moral instructors. 
The aim of their education has always been to 
mould the character and to infuse into their 
pupils that exquisite culture which is the mark 
of true refinement. Before the convent in St. 
Charles avenue was established, there was one 
in Dumaine street. This older institution has 
lately been abandoned owing to the shifting of 
population. 

Parochial Schools. The Catholic Church 
conducts a well organized system of parochial 
schools. Each parish church has a school ad- 
joining under the direction of the parish priest 
and, in most cases, taught by Nuns. Uniform 
text-books are used throughout the city and the 
classes are graded according to public school 
standards. The unity and efficiency of the system 
is further increased by a general supervision of 
all the Catholic Parochial Schools in New Or- 
leans. Music, art, and, of course, religious in- 
struction are given special attention. A gradu- 
ate of Newcomb College, eminent for her art 



work, has been appointed supervisor of the art 
department. The teachers are thoroughly pre- 
pared for the work and the buildings are well 
equipped. The school adjoining the Sacred Heart 
Church is considered one of the most up-to-date 
in the city. Stereopticons and even moving pic- 
ture machines are utilized to illustrate moral 
stories, history, and practical science lessons, 
imparting vivid and realistic sense-impressions 
to the child, thereby stimulating interest. 

Preparatory Schools. There are several well- 
known preparatory schools. The Christian 
Brothers' College, renowned for thoroughness, 
the Holy Cross College, and Rugby Academy are 
very successful in pre-collegiate work. 

Soule College. Since 1856, this institution 
has been successfully carried on, excepting 
during the years of the Civil War, when the 
president. Colonel Soule, entered the Confed- 
erate Army. It ranks very high as a Inisiness 
college and its graduates have little difficulty in 
securing positions. In 1881, it became coeduca- 
tional to meet the demands of women for com- 
mercial education. 



SECTION 6. INSTITUTIONS FOR THE COLORED. 



Public Schools. The city conducts elementary 
public schools for the children of the negro race 
similar to those provided for the white children. 

Leland University. This institution, situated 
at the corner of St. Charles Avenue and Audubon 
Street, was established in 1870 by a retired shoe 
merchant of Brooklyn, New York. The founder 
devoted his attention to it for twelve years and 
was assisted by the Freedman's Bureau and the 
American Baptist Home Mission Society. At 
his death, he bequeathed his property to the in- 
stitution. Tuition is free except for instrumental 
music. The course offers both normal and col- 
legiate work. 



Straight University. The American Mission- 
ary Association was instrumental in establish- 
ing this school in 1869, which was named for 
Seymour Straight, a produce merchant of New 
Orleans, and one M its earliest benefactors. At 
present, the University occupies large buildings 
with ample grounds in Canal Street. 

New Orleans University. In 1869, the Freed- 
man's Bureau established the Union Normal 
school, which in 1873 the Legislature chartered 
as the New Orleans University. The affairs of 
the institution are controlled by a board of 
trustees. Two-thirds of the members must be- 
long to the Methodist Episcopal Church. 



SECTION 7. LIBRARIES. 



Library Societies. According to tradition, as 
early as 1801, the first public library of New Or- 
leans was established; but there are no authentic 
records to attest its existence at so early a date. 



In 1805, the Legislature chartered the New Or- 
leans Library Society, a joint stock company 
with an unlimited number of shares at $25 each 
and the ])rivilege of conducting a lotter3^ The 



The new ORLEANS BOOK 



119 



finances of tlie Society did not prosper and its 
ultimate fate is imcertain. A similar attempt 
was made in 1824, when the Touro Free Library 
Society of New Orleans was incorporated. Its 
term of usefulness was short, for it lasted only 
six years. 

The State Library. There is no record of 
any pul)lic library for eight years after the dis- 
solution of the Touro Free Library Society; but 
in 1838, the State Library was established by 
act of the Legislature, chiefly for the benefit of 
the legislators, but open to all citizens. From a 
beginning of 3,000 volumes, it increased to 
50,028 in 1861. Tliese had been removed to 
Baton Rouge with the change of capital, con- 
sequently many very valuable books and docu- 
ments were destroyed when the State House was 
burned during tlie war. The volumes that were 
left were brought to New Orleans and deposited 
in the City Hall, whence they were removed to 
Tulaue University. 

"Commercial Library." This owed its ex- 
istence to private enterprise, but in 1842, through 
the generosity of B. F. French, it was turned 
over to the public. 

The Lyceum or Public School Library. The 
Second Municipality was bj;- far the most pro- 
gTessive in the educational line. In 1845, a 
library in connection with the schools of the 
district was established through the efforts 
of Mr. Shaw, superintendent of the public 
schools, Samuel J. Peters, and others. A 
monthly subscription of 25 cents for pupils and 



a yearly subscription of $5 for others, gave free 
access to the library, while a fee of $10 entitled 
the subscriber to life ownership. The Lyceum 
contained about 7,500 volumes and it is inter- 
esting to note that a few of them still bearing 
the mark of the Lyceum are to be found on 
the shelves of the present City Library. The 
books were placed in the newly founded and 
unfinished municipal hall, the same whose 
classic Grecian architecture now adorns La- 
fayette Square. 

The risk Library. About 1849, Mr. Alvarez 
Fisk bought the "Commercial Library" from 
Mr. French to carry out the designs of his de- 
ceased brother for the establishment of a public 
library in New Orleans. The collection then 
consisted of about 6,000 volumes, which, with a 
Imilding in Customhouse Street, he offered to 
the city. Very little interest or appreciation 
was shown for the gift and the city made no 
provision for its efficient operation. It was 
used successively by the Mechanics' Institute, 
the Louisiana University, and Tulane until 1897 ; 
then, it was that the Lyceum and the Fisk 
Library were consolidated to form the "Fisk 
Free and Public Library." The City Council 
has annually made an appropriation for its 
maintenance. This library continued to be the 
chief public library of the city and was fre- 
quently changed from one building to another 
until the city received a donation from Mr. Car- 
negie with which the present handsome struc- 
ture was erected. 



SECTION 8. THE NEW ORLEANS PUBLIC LIBRARY. 



Buildings. The library building was erected 
in 1908 at a cost somewhat over $260,000. Mr. 
Carnegie's gift amounted to $375,000, but as the 
Fisk Library was to be embodied in the new, 
the city refused to accept the sum unless the 
condition of naming it "Carnegie" be removed. 
The structure and grounds occupy the length of 
the block on St. Charles Avenue, between Lee 
Circle and Calliope street. The building is of 
gray stone and a portico suppoi-ted by graceful 
Corinthian columns extends beyond the main 
entrance. A terrace, several feet in height, gives 



the building an imposing setting. The interior 
of the main building is like one great hall sup- 
ported by massive marble jaillars. A domed 
skylight and many large windows keep it well 
lighted. Almost one-half of this huge room is 
occupied by the Juvenile Department, secluded 
by a low partition running from side to side. 
Here, the long low tables with their rows of 
dark shaded electric reading lamps, the small 
chairs, the drinking fountains, row upon row of 
interesting books, the carefully arranged collec- 
tion of pictures show that everything is planned 



120 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOl^ 



for the comfort, entertainraent, and instruction 
of the little folks. On either side of the hall is 
the reference room, containing a large collection 
of valuable books which are not allowed to cir- 
culate, but which can be taken from the shelves 
and read at leisure. Just beyond the reference 
room is the magazine reading room, where one 
can peruse at will the latest cojay of 339 different 
mag'azines — fashion books, literary periodicals, 
religious publications, and magazines of science, 
art, invention, agriculture, education, published 
in all parts of the English-speaking world and 
some in foreign languages. Behind the main 
building and connected to it by a wide vestibule, 
is the annex where the books for circulation are 
kept. Two stories are stacked with well-filled 
shelves, having only nar- 
row passageways between. 
The books are catalogued 
by means of the Library 
of Congress cards. Each 
book is listed twice — first 
on a card bearing the title 
of the book followed by 
the author's name, and 
this is filed alphabetically, 
according to the name of 
the book; secondly, on a 
card bearing first the 
author's name, then the 
title of the book, and this 
is filed according to the 
alphabetical order of the 
author's name. All the 
books are numbered and 
the cards in the index bear 
the numbers of the books. 

Branch Libraries. In connection with the 
New Orleans Public Library there are four 
In-anch libraries, namely, the Eoyal Branch, 
Algiers Branch, Canal Branch, and the Napoleon 
Avenue Branch. 

System of Circulation. The iise of these 
libraries is absolutely free to all, and any one 
holding a card may borrow books from the cir- 
culating depariiuC^t. All that is necessary to 
obtain a card is to have some one sigTi a guar- 
antee that he would be liable for any fines in- 
curred by the borrower. Fines are incurred if 
the book is kept longer than the time allowed, 
if the book is damaged, or if it is lost. 

Howard Memorial Library. Just on the 
other side of Lee Circle from the New Orleans 



Pul)lic Library, is a much smaller, but handsome 
structure. This, too, is a library, a memorial 
to Charles T. Howard, erected by his daughter, 
Mrs. Parrot, in 1888. The plans were drawn by 
Eichardson, and were the last from the hand of 
that famous architect. The original cost of the 
building was $115,000, and Mrs. Parrot's gener- 
osity led her to bestow an endowment of $200,000 
upon the library. The interior consists of a fine 
hall containing stacks, and a circular, domed 
reading room. Among the valuable articles 
owned by the library, are copies of the original 
editions of the works of Audubon and an un- 
rivaled collection of Louisiana maps. 

The Confederate Memorial Hall. Adjoin- 
ing the Howard Librarv is the Confederate 




NEW ORLEANS PUBLIC LIBRARY. 

— Courtesy Southern Pacific R. R- 

Memorial Hall liuilt in 1891 by Frank T. How- 
ard. The Hall with its invaluable collections, is 
in charge of the Louisiana Historical Associa- 
tion. Many and varied are the relics gathered 
here, — flags tattered and stained by time and 
battle, swords of gallant officers, the uniforms 
of some fallen hero, a lock of hair, the cord from 
a hat, — sad but soul-stirring mementoes of those 
heroes, who went forth gladly to give their lives 
for their beloved South. 

The Louisiana State Museum. The Louisiana 
State Museum, which now occupies the two his- 
toric buildings on either side of the St. Louis 
Cathedral, was created by act of the Legislature 
in 1906. The Cabildo contains valuable and in- 
teresting historical collections, including origi- 



*rHE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



121 



nal documents and letters; maps, especially of 
New Orleans dating from the earliest days of 
the city; General Jackson's battle flag and other 
relics of the Battle of New Orleans; slave-sale 
certificates, Confederate money, and mementoes 
of the Civil War; pictures of scenes connected 
with the history of the state, portraits of the 
governors of the state and many other historical 
personages ; and collections of china, silverware, 
furniture, and trinkets, representing different 
periods in the history of the State and city. The 
old Presbytery is devoted to the natural history 
and commercial of the State. The chief 



agricultural products — cotton, sugar cane, rice, 
and corn, the lumber and mineral products, and 
a wonderful collection of native birds and ani- 
mals are scientifically classified and attractively 
exhibited. 



TOPICS: Section 1, Colonial Education; Section 2, Early 
Years of American Rule; Section 3, Public School System; 
Section 4, Tulane University and Loyola University; 
Section 5, Private Schools and Colleges; Section 6, In- 
stitutions for the Colored; Section 7, Libraries; Section 
8, New Orleans Public Library. 

REFERENCES: Louisiana Studies, Fortier; Standard His- 
tory of New Orleans, Eightor; History of Education in 
Louisiana, Fay; Annual Eeport of the Superintendent of 
Public Schools; Annual Report of the New Orleans Public 
Library. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



Literature of New Orleans. 



SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION. 



Meaning. The word "literature" is derived 
from the Latin word "litera," which means a 
letter, written records, or writings. By litera- 
ture is meant "the best expression of the best 
thought reduced to writing." As people's 
emotions and thoughts are influenced by their 
individual character, mode of life, and social 
conditions, so is literature, which is the written 
record of these emotions and thoughts; hence 
literature is an important factor in understand- 
ing a people. Literature requires settled con- 
ditions in order to flourish. The North Amer- 
ican Lidian had no literature because his life 
was one continuous struggle for food and life; 
he had no time to record his emotions, thoughts, 
and deeds. The earliest form of literature is the 
writing of the jiriests of the ancient tribes ; their 
life was quiet; they led the people spiritually, 
in return for which, they were exempt from 



fighting; this condition of their life enabled them 
to give permanent expression to their religious 
beliefs and the prowess of the warriors. Litera- 
ture is therefore the product of peaceful times, 
though struggles and turmoils of different kinds 
are often taken for the theme. 

Two Kinds of Literature in Louisiana. For a 
full century, French was the principal language 
in Louisiana. The Spanish domination had no 
effect on the language of the colony. Even after 
the American occupation, French held first place 
for about forty years. The sons of wealthy 
Creole families of ante-bellum days were sent to 
France for their higher education; thus the 
French language was retained in its purity. 
Even to-day, the French language is generally 
well spoken in Louisiana. From this hag re- 
sulted a French as well as an English Litera- 
ture. 



SECTION 2. FRENCH LITERATURE. 



First Literary Effort. Literature grows 
slowly in new countries. In the early days of 
the colony, the hard conditions of life repressed 
any literary aspirations. "Le Moniteur," the 
first newspaper, was not founded until 1794. 
Copies of it are to be found in the archives of 
the city. The first literary work produced in 
New Orleans, in fact in Louisiana, was an epic, 
which appeared in 1779, during the time of the 
Spanish control; it was written in French by 
Juiien Poydras, a native of Brittany, then living 
in New Orleans. The poem celebrated Glalvez's 
capture of Baton Rouge and was entitled "La 
Prise du Morne du Baton Rouge par Monseig- 
neur de Glalvez. ' ' The work is devoid of literary 
merit, but is worthy of notice as the first at- 
tempt at a literary work in Louisiana. Juiien 
Poydras 's fame rests on his philanthropy and 
public-spirited citizenship. He came to New 



Orleans penniless; by peddling along the River, 
he gradually amassed enough money to become 
a merchant and planter, and thus acquired the 
fortune, which he spent so freely in assisting less 
fortunate in Louisiana. Poydras street received 
its name from the fact that Juiien Poydras 's 
New Orleans home was located there. 

Drama. The second literary work was a 
tragedy, "Poucha Houmma," by Le Blanc de 
Villeneufve, published in 1814. The subject is 
a Houmma Indian chief's sacrifice of his life so 
as to save that of his son. Cula-Be, the son of 
Chief Poucha Houmma, had escaped from the 
Choctaw village after killing a Choctaw. At the 
feast of the "Yovmg Wheat," the Choctaws sent 
to the Hoummas to demand the murderer. The 
old chief sent his son away and gave himself up 
instead to the Choctaws. Villeneufve endeavors 
through his work to prove to the world that the 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



123 



Indians were not destitute of human feeling. 
L. Placide Canonge in 1849 wrote a one-act 
comedy, "Qui Perd Gagne" (Who loses gains). 
Dr. Alfred Mercier and Dr. C. Delery also wrote 
some plays. 

Poetry. A number of fine poems were written 
at different times during the last century. In 
1846, Mr. Felix de Courmont published a poetical 
journal called "Le Taenarion." Dr. Alfred 
Mercier, besides his drama, wrote some poetry; 
"La Eose de Smyrne" and "Erato" are ranked 
among his best. Dr. Chas. Testut published in 
1849 a volume of verse called "Les Echos." But 
French poetry is little known. The works of the 
French poets do not enjoy the wide recognition 
they deserve. 

Prose. Charles Gayarre's first 
work was in French, "Essai His- 
torique sur la Louisiaue" (His- 
toi'ical Essay in Louisiana). This 
work appeared in 1830. Charles 
Grayarre is one of the best known 
names in Louisiana, as a lawyer, 
legislator, and historian. He was 
born in New Orleans, January 
9, 1805, of French and Spanish 
parentage; his mother was the 
youngest daughter of Etienne de 
Bor6. He was graduated at the 
age of twenty from the College of 
Orleans and then went to Phila- 
delphia, where he studied law 
with a well-known jurist, Mr. 
Bawle. He was elected in 1835 to the United 
States Senate, but his poor health prevented 
him taking his seat. He then spent eight years 
in France and returned with his health much 
improved. While abroad, he began the work on 
which his fame rests, his "Histoire de la Lou- 
isiane," the first two volumes of which appeared 
in 1846 and '47; in 1854, he completed the 




volume on the Spanish Domiziation, and during 
the Civil War that on the American Domination. 
After the Civil War, appeared a comedy, "Dr. 
Bluff," "Philip 11. of Spain," "Fernando de 
Lemos or Truth and Fiction," and its sequel, 
"Aubert Dubayet or the Two Sister Republics." 
He contributed many articles to prominent mag- 
azines and reviews. He helped to reorganize the 
Louisiana Historical Society and became its 
president. Gayarre has given a valuable ac- 
count of his life as a child on his grandfather's 
(Etienne de Bore) plantation in "A Louisiana 
Plantation under the Old Regime." He held 
man^^ political positions, such as member of the 
General Assembly and Secretary of State. The 
last years of the distinguished scholar's life were 
rendered painful by ill health and 
l^ecuniar)' embarrassments. Death 
claimed Charles Gayarre on Feb- 
i-uary 11, 1895. 

Besides his poems. Dr. Testut 
wrote two novels, "Le Vieux 
vSalomon" and "Les "Filles de 
Monte Cristo." Dr. Alfred 
Mercier wrote "Le Fou de 
Palerme," "La Fille du PrMre," 
and "L 'Habitation St. Ybars"; 
the latter is generally considered 
his best; it gives a vivid and 
accurate account of life on a 
large sugar plantation before the 
War. 

French Literary Society. 
The "Athenee Louisianais" is a society for 
the preservation of the French language in 
Louisiana. It is affiliated with the Alliance 
Frangaise of Paris and the United States. 
The society publishes a journal, "Les Compte- 
rendus d 1 'Athenee Louisianais," which con- 
tains many of the best literary efforts of its 
members. 



CHARLES GAYARRiS. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum, 



SECTION 3. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 



DeBow's Review. In January, 1846, appeared 
the first number of the "Commercial Review of 
New Orleans"; the Review was edited by James 
D. B. DeBow, who had removed in 1845 from 
Charleston, South Carolina, to New Orleans. Its 
original title is now scarcely known, it being 



familiarly spoken of as DeBow's Review. The 
Review became one of the foremost journals of 
the United States in the years before the War; 
it is a rich source of historical material about 
the Old South. DeBow, the editor, was a pioneer 
in the study of political economy, which he 



124 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOIt 



taught at the University of Louisiana, then 
located in New Orleans. Besides contributing 
to the Eeview and the Encyclopedia Britannica, 
DeBow published "Encyclopedia of Trade and 
Commerce of the United States ' ' in two volumes, 
and various other works. The Review was pub- 
lished regularly until 1864, when it was discon- 
tinued ; after the war, the office was removed to 
Nashville, Tennessee, where the journal was 
published for two years, 1866- '68, and then per- 
manently stopped. The Review's influence on 
the development of the city commercially and 
educationally was great ; its pages are rich with 
the best thought not only of New Orleans, but of 
the entire South. 

Poetry. Many New Orleanians have written 
poetry, though few have attained distinction as 
poets. Before the War, the two best writers of 
verse were not native New Orleanians, but citi- 
zens by adoption. Joseph Brennan, born 1829, 
was an Irish patriot exiled from Ireland because 
of his connection with the revolutionary move- 
ments in 1848. He lived in New Orleans for the 
last ten years of his life, and for three years was 
connected with the "Delta." About his best 
poem is "The Exile To His Wife"; it is a 
pathetic account of his loneliness in a foreign 
land and his longing for his wife, for her pres- 
ence, her love, and tenderness; it is rich in 
lieauty of thought and musical rhythm. Richard 
Heiiry Wilde was also a native of Ireland; he 
was born in Dublin in 1789; he came to Mary- 
laud as a child and then lived in Augusta, 
Georgia, where,. after studying law, he was sent 
to Congress. In 184.3, Wilde removed to New 
Orleans, where he died four years later. His 
two best known poems are "Ode to Ease" and 
"The Lament of a Captive; or. My Life is Like 
the Summer Rose." Both poems soimd a note 
of sad loneliness; the last is an exquisite lyric. 

Colonel William Preston Johnston, a former 
president of Tulane University, published a 
volume of poems, ' ' My Garden Walk, ' ' La 1895. 

There have been three noted poetesses, Mrs. 
MoUie E. Moore-Davis, Mrs. Mary Ashley Town- 
send, and Mrs. Eliza Poitevent Nicholson. 

Mrs. Davis was the wife of Major Thomas 
Edward Davis; she was born in Alabama in 
1852, but, when a small child, her parents moved 
to Texas, where she lived until her marriage 
caused her to reside in New Orleans. Many of 
her early poems were gathered into a volume 
entitled "Minding the Gap and Other Poems." 



"Pere Dagobert" and "Wanga" are among her 
principal later poems. There is an appealing 
note of truth and sympathy and sweetness in 
Mrs. Davis's writings; her thoughts are fresh 
and original. Mrs. Davis was also a novelist. 

Mrs. Mary Ashley Townsend was born and 
spent her early life in New York. Alter her 
marriage in 1856, New Orleans became her home. 
Mrs. Townsend has published three volumes of 
verse and a collection of sonnets; she usually 
wrote under the name of "Xariffa." "Creed" 
contains beautiful thoughts beautifully ex- 
pressed; for instance, the vivid simile in the 
verse preceding the last, in which she compares 
a person who has not loved to one who carelessly 
drops a luscious gi'ape without ever knowing its 
delicious sweetness; the last verse tells of the 
beautifying effect love has on old age. "A 
Georgia Volunteer" is a sympathetic musing 
over the grave of an unknown Confederate sol- 
dier. ' ' A Woman 's Wish ' ' and ' ' The Captain 's 
Story" are among other well-known poems. 

Mrs. Eliza J. Poitevent Nicholson was born 
in Mississippi in 1849, but removed to New Or- 
leans after her marriage. Mrs. Nicholson was 
the owner of the former ' ' Picayune ' ' newspaper. 
"Pearl Rivers" was the name under which she 
wrote. Mrs. Nicholson died in 1896. Besides 
many unijublished poems and poems published 
in newspapers, there is a volume of "Lyrics." 
The lovely poem, "Singing Heart," is in this 
volume. Mrs. Nieholsou generally wrote of the 
things of nature; she had a deep understanding 
and love of nature's workings. 

Drama. No great dramatic work has been 
produced. Judge Gayarre and W. W. Howe, 
and Mr. E. C. Wharton wrote a few plays, but 
achieved no distinction thereby. 

History. Judg-e Francis X. Martin was the 
first historian of Louisiana. Judge Martin pub- 
Isihed his history in 1827; he recounts the his- 
tory of Louisiana from the beginning of its 
settlement to the close of the year 1815. Judge 
Martin was also an eminent jurist. (See Chap- 
ter X., Professions — Trades.) 

Judge Gayarre wrote a romantic History of 
Louisiana. Other historical writings of Judge 
Gayarre are: "A Historical Sketch of the Two 
Lafittes," "A Louisiana Sugar Plantation of the 
Old Regime," "The New Orleans Bench and 
Bar in 1823," "Literature in Louisiana," and 
"The Creoles of History and the Creoles of 
Romance"; the last was a refutation of George 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



125 



W. Cable's misrepresentation of tlie Louisiana 
Creoles. 

Professor Alcee Fortier devoted his life to 
the study of Louisiana historj^, people, and their 
language. Professor Fortier was born in St. 
James Parish, June 5, 1856; he was the son of 
Florent Fortier and Edwige Aime, the daughter 
of Valcour Aime. He received his early educa- 
tion under private tutors, in the schools of New 
Orleans, and at the University of Virginia. He 
then studied law for two years, but his father's 
financial reverses compelled him to give it up 
and accept a clerkship in a bank. Shortly after, 
he became a teacher in the city high school; 
later, he was made principal of the preparatory 
department of the University of Louisiana. In 
1880, he was made Professor of 
French, at the University. The 
following year, he married Miss 
Marie Lanauze of New Orleans. 
From the professorship of French, 
he was changed some years later, 
to that of Romance languages. 
In 1913, he became Dean of the 
Graduate Department of the Uni- 
versity. Professor Fortier died 
at his home in Audubon Street, 
February 14, 1914. Professor 
Fortier served for ten years on 
the State Board of Education; he 
was president of the Civil Service 
Commission and of the Board of 
Curators of the State Museum. It 
was largely through his exertions 
that the Louisiana Historical So- 
ciety was kept from perishing; 
he served as its president for many years. The 
French government honored him by appointing 
him an officer of public instruction and present- 
ing him with the cross of the Legion of Honor. 
Professor Fortier was president of the follow- 
ing organizations: Athenee Louisianais, Modern 
Language Association of America, American 
Folk Lore Society, and Federation Alliance 
FrauQaise of United States and Canada, and 
the Public School Alliance of New Orleans. 

Besides his labors in the classroom, in clubs, 
and societies. Professor Fortier did much 
writing, both in French and English. "Bits of 
Folk Lore" appeared in 1888, followed succes- 
sively by "Sept Grands Auteurs du Dixneu- 
vieme Siecle" (Seven Great Authors of the 
Niiieteeath Cofttury), "Histoire de la Literature 




Frangaise" (History of French Literature), 
"Louisiana Studies," "Louisiana Folk Tales," 
"Voyage en Europe," "Precis de 1 'Histoire de 
France" (Abstract of History of France), "His- 
tory of Louisiana," "History of Mexico"; 
editor of "Encyclopedia of Louisiana,'' and of 
many French texts. Professor Fortier con- 
tributed to many magazines in the United States 
and in France. 

Judge Alexander Walker wrote in 1860 the 
"Life of Andrew Jackson and Battle of New 
Orleans"; his son, Mr. Norman McF, Walker, 
Ijublished in the Magazine of American History, 
September, 1883, an interesting paper entitled 
"The Geographical Nomenclature of Lou- 
isiana." Colonel William Preston Johnston 
wrote the life of his father, "Life 
of Albert Sidney Johnston." An- 
other work dealing with the Civil 
War is Colonel Alfred Roman's 
"Military Operations of General 
Beauregard. " W. W. Howe pulv 
Hshed the "Municipal Histor^^ of 
New Orleans" in the Johns Hop- 
kins University Studies in His- 
torical and Political Science. 
There are many other books of a 
similar character. 

The Novel. Charles Gayarre 
Avrote two so-called novels, ' ' Fer- 
nando de Lemos" and "Aubert Du- 
bayet. Charles Dimitry, the son of 
the able educator, wrote "The 
House on Balfour Street." Dr, 
W. H. Holcombe published "Mys- 
tery of New Orleans in 1890."' 
One of the most noted names in the literature 
of New Orleans is that of Lafcadio Hearn. Hearn 
was born in 1850 on the island of Santa Maura, 
one of the Ionian group ; his mother was a Greek 
and his father an English army surgeon; he was 
educated partly in England, in Ireland, and in 
France. Hearn came to the United States after 
his father's death, making his residence in Cin- 
cinnati ; here, he learned the printer 's trade, then 
became a travelling correspondent of a Cincin- 
nati paper; he spent a vacation in the South 
and, unable to cast off the spell of the Southland, 
removed to New Orleans. It was in New Orleans, 
most of his literary work was done ; he wrote at 
times for the Times-Democrat. His first book 
was "Stray Leaves from Strange Literature." 
"Chinesej Ghosts" relates legends of China., 



ALCEE FORTIER. 

— Courtesy La. State Museum 



126 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



"Chita" is a local story based on the ter- 
rible storm that destroyed Last Island. Later 
Mr. Hearn removed to Japan, where his 
death occurred. Lafcadio Hearn 's writing is 
characterized by its brilliance and vivid col- 
oring. 

G-eorge W. Cable may be claimed as a writer 
of New Orleans, even though he no longer re- 
sides in the city. George W. Cable was born in 
New Orleans in 1844. After serving in the Civil 
War, he became a civil engineer, but ill health 
forced him to give it up. Cable wrote for the 
Picayune and in 1869 became one of its editors. 
Scribner's Magazine published his "Old Creole 
Days"; the success of this book decided him to 
adopt literature as a profession. After a lecture 
tour with Clemens (Mark Twain) through the 
Northern States, he removed to New England. 
George W. Cable has also written ' ' The Gran- 
dissimes," "Dr. Sevier," "The Creoles of Lou- 
isiana," and "The Silent South." His portrayal 
of the Creoles has sometimes been faulty. One 
of Mr. Cable's ablest works is "History of New 
Orleans and Its Present Condition," written for 
the United States census of 1880; it is a rich 
source of information about New Orleans. His 
last work is "Gideon's Band," published in 
1914; in this novel, Mr. Cable portrays with mas- 
terful skill steamboat life on the Mississippi in 
the early fifties, revealing the spirit of con- 
flict then abroad in the great Valley. Mr. Cable 
has much power as a descriptive writer, de- 
lighting his readers with exquisite word- 
paintings. 

Besides her poems, Mrs. Majy E. M. Davis 
wrote several - charming novels, "In "War 
Times at La Eose Blanche," "An Elephant's 
Track," "The Queen's Garden," "The Price 
of Silence," " Keren-Happuch, " clever accounts 
of life and scenes in New Orleans, and some 
other stories. 

Mrs. Ruth McEnery Stuart was born in 
Avoyelles Parish, the daughter of James and 
Mary McEnery; she was educated in New Or- 
leans. Mrs. Stuart is the widow of Alfred 0. 
Stuart, a cotton planter, to whom she was mar- 
ried in 1879. Mrs. Stuart began writing in 1888; 
her first book was "The Golden Wedding," a 
portrayal of negro character; this was followed 



by "Christmas Gifts," a story of slave times; 
"Carlotta's Intended," which deals with Dago 
life; "In Simpkinsville, " "The Gentleman of 
the Plush Eocker," "George Washington 
Jones," and "A Christmas Gift That Went 
A-Begging." Mrs. Stuart also does clever mag- 
azine writing. 

Miss Grace King is among the foremost 
writers of New C)rleans. Knowing intimately 
the Creole life of New Orleans, Miss King has 
generally devoted her books to the portrayal of 
the character and manners of the Creoles, in 
which the best critics agree that she has en- 
tirely succeeded. Miss Grace Elizabeth King 
was born in New Orleans, November 29, 1859; 
her father, William Woodsen King, was a prom- 
inent lawyer in ante-belhim days. Miss King 
passed her childhood in the midst of the Creole 
quarter of the city and on her father's planta- 
tion in St. Martin Parish. She received her 
education in the schools of the city and from 
private tutors. Miss King early spoke French 
and Spanish fluently and was thus enabled to 
easily study the history of the Creoles from orig- 
inal documents. Miss King's first literarj^ work 
was done for the New Princeton Eeview, which 
writing she later developed into her first novel, 
"Monsier Motte" (1888). "Tales of Time and 
Place, ' ' and ' ' Earthlings ' ' followed. ' ' New Or- 
leans, the Place and the People," then followed; 
this is one of Miss King's most delightful books; 
it is written in an easy, charming manner, re- 
plete with vivid descriptions and interesting de- 
tails, and reveals the Creole character at its best. 
Other works are "Jean Baptiste Lemoyne, 
Founder of New Orleans," "Balcony Stories," 
and "De Soto and His Men in the Land of 
Florida." Miss King wrote a school history of 
Louisiana, in collaboration with Mr. Ficklin. 
Miss King has received world-wide recognition 
of her work. 

Mrs. Cecilia Viets Jamison is a writer of 
beautiful stories for children. Mrs. Jamison is a 
native of Canada, but New Orleans became her 
home after her marriage in 1878 to Samuel Jami- 
son, a well-known lawj^er of this city. Among 
Mrs. Jamison's most popular books are "Lady 
Jane," "Toinette's Philip," "Seraph," "This- 
tledown," and "The PenhaUow Family." Mrs. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



127 



Jamison writes for such magazines as Appleton, 
Harper, and St. Xicliolas. 

Mr. Thos. McCaleb lias written a novel. "An- 
thony Melgrave, " which met with a cordial re- 
ception on its appearance in 1892. 

Miss Fannie Heaslip Lea (Mrs. Hamilton 
Pope Agee) is among the latest recruits to the 
literar}- ranks. Miss Lea has written principally 
for magazines; her only novel, "Quicksands," 



appeared in 1911. Miss Lea has just begun her 
literary career. 

TOPICS: Section 1, Introduction: Meaning, Two Kinds of 
Literature in Louisiana; Section 2, French Literature: 
First Literary Effort, Drama, Poetry, Prose, French Lit- 
erary Society; Section 3, English Literature: DeBow's 
Keview, Poetry, Drama, History, NoveL 

EEFERENCES: Fortier, Louisiana Studies; Fortier, Ency- 
clopedia of Louisiana; KeCaleb, The Louisiana Boole; 
J. E. Clarke, Songs of the South; Literary reviews of 
current magazines and newspapers. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



People — Customs. 



SECTION 1. PEOPLE. 



Composition of Population. Tlu; popiilHlion 
(if New Oilciiiis, like llifil of otlicM' larj^c Aiiior- 
iciin ciiicK, is (!()Siii()i)olitfin, tlio rosiili of ils 
people's CorcHK'n [)arenta«(i jukI of foreign iin- 
iiii^ralioii. It, must bo ])()i'n(! in niind tliat the 
people ol' tli(( llnijcd States aix; not native to 
tli(; coiintry; tlieii' anc-cfstors, followinjj; in the 
Wiiki'. of (!()lunil)iis, i)uslie(l their way across tlie 
seas and assumed control of the Americas as 
their forefatliers had of Eiiroix'. 

Accoi'diiiK' to the United Staters census of 
1!>10, jhe population of New Orleans was ;5.'U),()75, 
(^onsistinf;- of Oreoles, Americans, negroes, and 
foreigners; the foreign element was tlien sliglitly 
moi'(( tlian 12 per cent of tlie population, and 
includiHl nqirosentatives of every nation of 
Europe and of s(iveral countries of Asia and of 
(!entral and South America. This percentage 
comi)ar'es favorably with Hu<;h cities as New 
York, in which the foreign element is 42 per cent 
of tiie entire i)opulation, (Ihicago ;53 ])er cent, 
and St. Louis 25 per cent. It is, however, much 
lai'gei- than that of Boston, where the foreign 
el(Mnent is only four per cent of the entire ])0])U- 
lation. 

Creoles. The (h'Cioles are the descendants of 
the b'rencii and Spanish settlers of Louisiana. 
VVIien Louisiana passed under the American 
flag, the Americans built up a quarter for them- 
selves above the Ter'i-e Commime. This Terre 
Commune is now Canal Street and thus marks 
the division between the old city and the new, 
and between the Creoles and the Americans. 
Below Canal Street is the French or Creole 
(juarter and above (Janal Street the American 
district; the line is not as strictly drawn now 
as in former iiines; many Creole families now 
live in the American section and there are 
numerous American residents north of Canal 
(downtown). ^Phe (Creoles have many charac- 
lei-istics of tiu; French and Spanish i)eoi)le, tem- 
px'red, however, by the di(f(^reut conditions of 
their liL'c iu A.nierica. They are (luick-t(Mni)ered, 



care-free, sociable, gay, jiossess the pow(u* of 
enjoying life, and are generally religious; they 
are kindly in their intercourse and possess a 
pleasing chann of manner. The Creoles differ 
in appearance from the other iidial)itants of the 
city; their physitpu! is sliglit, but muscular and 
strong, and their movcnnents light and graceful; 
they have olive comi)lexi(ms, dark eyes and 
hair. The Ci'eoles, as a rule, speak Frtuich and 
Fnglish. 

Americans. "Americans" in New Orleans 
generally means the people who are not descend- 
ants of the French and Spanish settlers. The 
appellation, "American," was given by the 
Creoles to the English-si)eaking settlers, who, 
from, the time of the Kevolutionary War, came 
at intervals to Louisiana. This name has clung 
to them ever since. These people rapidly ob- 
tained control of the comtnerce of the city and 
made their quarter, the Faubourg Ste. Marie, 
(Ihe First District), the business and i)olitical 
center of New Orh^ans. These Americans, un- 
like the Creoles, have no distinctive physical 
characteristics, (except that generally, their 
build is larger. Their temjierament is the same 
as that of the average American; having become 
acelinuited, the long sumnun-s do not cause them 
to lose their energy as frofjuently happens to 
their l)rothers from Northern States; they ad- 
just their mode of living to suit the conditions 
of the place. Though the "Americans" are a 
happy people, yet they are not as fond of gaiety 
as the Creoles; they generally prefer home 
])leasures to social affairs. 

Latin Americans. The Latin Americans 
come from the West Indies, Mexico, Central and 
South America; they are descended from the 
Si)anish settlers of these countries and have the 
same character and appearance as the people 
of Spain. Though not very numerous hereio- 
I'ore, revolution in Mexico is occasioning the 
uumlier of M(!xican inuuigrauts to increase 
rapidly. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



.1.29 



Europeans. lOvery country ol" Euro|)e is 
r(^l)ro,s(Mite(l in Now Orleans and in all classes, 
oc(!Uf)ations, and seciions of the city. Among 
tlie i'oroigners, the "Italians" are the moat 
numerous; tiiey are found in tlie dideront walks 
of life from tlie humble, loud-voiced v(uidor, 
di'iving his cart of fruit along the str(!ets and 
calling out the different varieties in Kngiisli 
iiniK)ssil)le to understand, to tlu^ wealtliy fruit 
ni(M'(Oiant, wlio is helping to develop tlu^ city's 
ocean connnerce. The (lermans are conspicuous 
in all avocations; tlieir ability and iiulustiy pro- 
cui'c them permanent success, wliether in agri- 
culture, trade, banking, or in the pr<)f(!Ssions. 
The French are perfectly at home in the Ofcole 
part of the city, where they Ihud- their imtive 
language spoken with but a slightly different 
accent. French opera is sung ((xclusivcily a1, 
the Opera House; a troupe of singers is brought 
from France for the winter season. The Irish 
are almost as numerous as the French. Irish 
immigration began in the early forties of the 
past century and has continued aloiost unintcn-- 
ruptedly. Trade is the avocation in which they 
are most conspicuous. The English in N((w Or- 
leans belong as a rule to a wealthier class than 
the other foreigners; they are largcily (engaged 
in foreign trade;'like the Italians and (l(!ririans, 
they are scattered among the other inhabitants 
of the city, not congregating more in one (juaiier 
than another. The Russians occupy sixth place 
on tli(^ list of foreigners in New Orleans; on the 
main, they are Russian Jews, who have fhsd from 
l)ersecution in Russia; many are engaged in con- 
ducting little, second-hand shops on Dryades 



Sirecit, and in peddling. P)esid('S thes(> national- 
ities, there are a few Austrians, (JrecVks, Swiss, 
Spaniards, P)('lglaiis, Danes, Noi'wegiaiis, Swedes, 
and Scotchmen. 

Asiatics. Among Orit^ntal nations, the 
(!liiiies(!, Ja[)anese, and Turks arc; tlu; more 
|)roniinent in New Orleans, as in other cilices of 
the United States, where they have congregatcMl 
in any numbers. The Ohinesc* have established 
a (piarter of their own in New Orleans; they are 
located on Tulane y\ venue between South Ivain- 
pai-t and the Oi-iminal Ooui't House. Ibire, they 
have small nistavi rants, junk aiul pa,wn shops, 
and laundries; thc^y are experts in laundering, 
(;sp((cially clothes requiring stiffening, and theii' 
little; laundry places are found everywlu^rcs in 
th(> city. The Jaiuuiese, the most liighly de- 
veloped people of iJi(! Mongolian race, operate 
nuiny shops for tlu; sale of .bipanese ware and 
curios of all kinds; some of the more interesting 
of tluise little stores are in Royal Stnud;, a,nd, 
through them, may be o])tained most d(*liglitful 
glimpses of the life in far-away Nippon. 'V\)i^ 
swarthy Turk earns his livelihood in tlu; (^'niS- 
cent City by peddling lincMis, ciinbroideries, lac(fS, 
and various y)roducts of Western Asia. 

Negroes. The negroes, more generally calhul 
the "colored people," are the descendants of the 
slaves of ante-bellum days, who originally came; 
from Africa. The "colored people" form the 
s((rvant class in the community. Schools and 
missions, maintained for their betterment, ani 
w((ll attended and have accomplished good n;- 
siilts. A kindly feeling exists l)(;twe(Mi tlurwiiitc! 
an<l "coIoccmI " r'a.<'.es. 



SECTION 2. CUSTOMS. 



Carnival. (Jarnival is tlus season betwcn^n 
'i\velftli Night and Lent. It is the gayest season 
of the year in New Orleans, the climax being 
reached by the costly festivities of Mardi (Jras, 
"fat Tuesday," the eve of Ash Wednesday. The 
name "Carnival" is derived from two Latin 
words "carne," "flesh," and "vale," "fare- 
well," hence "farewell to the flesh"; the pleas- 
ures of "carnival" are a gay good-by to th(! 
flesh which is to be mortified during the p(!ni- 
tential season of Lent. 

Carnival is of pagai; origin. The Romans 



(•(ihibralcci ilus f(iast of the I'astoral god, Lu- 
pcrcus, on February ir)th; goats were sacrificed 
and two youths clothed in goat skins, nut 
through the streets hitting with leather thongs 
th(; persons they met. The celebration in modi- 
fied form was kept by the Christian Romans and 
has been continued to the present day. TIk! 
custom spread from Rome to other placets. N(;w 
Orleans adopted th(! Carnival from Paris, but 
has improved upon it so greatly, that, today, 
her Carnival is. the most noted in the world. The 
brilliant bjills and gorgeous pageants of the la^^ 



130 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



'Paradise Lost" 



week of Carnival annually attract tlioiisands of 
\dsitors to the hospitable metropolis of the 
Southland. 

The custom of having pageants reproducing 
scenes from history, literature, or art, by means 
of gorgeously decorated floats, was introduced 
into New Orleans from Mobile. In 1831, an 
organization of Mobile known as the "Cow- 
bellions," held the first parade of the kind in 
America. The Mystic Krewe of Comus was the 
first to delight the populace of New Orleans by 
its appearance in the streets. In 1857, they pre 
seuted scenes from Milton's 
and then repaired to the 
old Varieties Theatre for 
the grand l^all with which 
they entertained their 
more intimate friends. 
This merry god and his 
court annually parade in 
exquisitely artistic guise 
in the evening of Mardi 
Grras; their ball later at 
the French Opera House, 
is the climax and close of 
the brilliant social season. 
Rex first came to rule 
in 1872 for the benefit of 
the city's distinguished 
guest, the Grand Duke 
Alexis of Russia. Since 
then, the royal yacht, com- 
ing from over distant seas, 
bears the merry monarch 
and his court of dukes and 
peers of the realm, to the 
landing at the foot of 
Canal Street at noon of 
Monday, the eve of .Mardi 
Gras. Rex's arrival is 
hailed by a prolonged 
salute of cannon and whistles from every craft 
in the harbor. A procession, composed of the 
dignitaries of the city, the soldiers from Jackson 
Barracks, the crews of the visiting warships, the 
state militia, and jjart of the city police force, 
then escorts Rex to the City Hall. Here, the 
Mayor of New Orleans presents him with the 
keys of the city and he begins his frolicsome 
rule of thirty-six hours, during which time the 
air resounds with the royal anthem, "If Ever I 
Cease to Love." At noon on Mardi Gras, Rex 
parades in f ancif iJ array through the principal 



streets of the city, pausing in front of the Pick- 
wick or Boston Club's balcony in Canal Street, 
to salute the Queen of the Carnival and the mem- 
bers of her court and present Her Majesty with 
a bouquet in the carnival colors, pui'ple, green, 
and gold. Mardi Gras night Rex entertains 
at a public ball at the carnival palace (the 
Athenaeum, corner of St. Charles Avenue and 
Clio Street); at midnight. Rex and his Queen, 
accompanied by the members of the court, visit 
Comus, at the French Opera House; the union 
of the two courts in the grand mareli following 
the arrival of the royal guests, is one of the most 
gorgeous spectacles in the 
social life of the United 
States. 

The Thursday night 
before Mardi Gras wit- 
nesses the appearance of 
the Knights of Momus. 
This parade inaugurates 
the Mardi Gras festiv- 
ities. Momus 's advent 
occurred in the same year 
as Rex, 1872, when he 
showed scenes from Sir 
Walter Scott's romance, 
"The Talisman." After 
the parade, Momus enter- 
tains at a ball at the 
French Opera House. 

The Mystic Krewe of 
Proteus made its first ap- 
pearance in 1882, on^Mardi 
Gras eve, in a parade illus- 
trative of ' ' The Dream of 
Egypt. ' ' Proteus seems 
not to limit the cost, so 
beautiful are his annual 
]iageant and ball both in 
thought and execution. 
There are other organizations that entertain 
at brilliant balls; among these, the more promi- 
nent are the Twelfth Night Revellers, Nereus, 
and the Atlanteans. A queen and attendant 
maids are chosen at all these balls and the 
beauty and rich attire of the court contribute to 
the splendor of the entertainment, which gener- 
ally occurs at the French Opera House. 

One of the most important factors in arous- 
ing the Mardi Gras spirit is the secrecy and 
mystery enshrouding the great pageants; the 
public knows nothing about them until they see 




CARNUIVAL PAGEANT IN CANAL STREET. 

— Courtesy Southern Pacific R. R-. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



131 



them appear in the streets. The expense of 
these parades is borne by members of the Mystic 
Krewes, and ranges from $20,000 to $30,000 and 
sometimes more for a single pageant. As soon 
as one Mardi Gras is over, preparations begin 
for the next. A Mystic Krewe numbers about 
250 members, about 100 of whom are selected 
to participate in the display. A design com- 
mittee is elected at the organization's first meet- 
ing; a "captain" is appointed to be the head 
of this committee, and is given absolute power. 
The committeemen propose subjects taken from 
history, literature, mythology, etc.; five or six 
of these suggestions are given to the artist, who 
presents a few weeks later crayon sketches of 
them to tlie committee. After the committee 
makes its final selection, the artist designs in de- 
tail and in water colors each float and costume. 
The characters are then assigned the meml^ers 
and the costume cards are sent to the manu- 
facturer ; the costumes are received by December 
and given to the court tailors for fitting and 
altering. The float Committee has charge of the 
construction of tlie floats. Carpenters, painters, 
papier-mache workers, and many others are 
kept busy building the floats in the "Float 
Den," which is located in an out-of-the-way 
place, such as the yard of an abandoned cotton- 
press. The ball at the Opera House is arranged 
by the "Ball Committee." When the appointed 
day for the parade arrives, preparations are 
begun in the afternoon, if the display is to be 
at night. The drivers, torcli-bearers, and other 
attendants are well drilled. The maskers' cos- 
tumes are in readiness in some building near the 
Float Den; the members rejoair to this building 
and don their costumes, placing their formal 
dress suits in the "costume boxes; these boxes are 
later taken to the Opera House to be in readiness 
for the maskers at the close of the ball. About 
seven o'clock, the maskers line up and the roll 
is called. A police squad keeps the streets 
cleared for several squares about the den. The 
torch-bearers form in ranks and the floats, about 
twenty in number, are driven out. At the ' ' Cap- 
tain 's" command, the maskers mount the floats. 
The Captain then marshals the torch-bearers, 
floats, and bands into position, and the proces- 
sion moves out Clio Street to St. Charles Avenue, 
up St. Charles Avenue to Washington Avenue, 
and then down to Canal Street ; out Canal Street 
to Magazine Street, and out Canal Street along 
its upper side to Carondelet Street, and then 



down Bourbon Street to the French Opera House, 
at the corner of Toulouse Street and Bourbon, 
where the maskers dismount and the floats are 
taken away to their secret home. These pageants 
are not only exquisite and entertaining, but in- 
structive as well. The subjects are worked out 
in a highely artistic manner, beautifully illus- 
trating bits of the world's treasure house of fact 
and fable, as for instance, Tasso's "Jerusalem 
Delivered," "The Adventures of Telemachus," 
"Chaucer's Tales," and many others. 

McDonogh Day. One of the most prominent 
]3ersons in the conunercial and social world of 
New Orleans between the Transfer and 1850, 
was John McDonogh; first, social favorite, then 
melancholy recluse. John McDonogh was born 
in Baltimore in 1778, of Scotch parentage. A 
visit to New Orleans in 1800 revealed its com- 
mercial possibilities, and, in 1804, he took up 
his permanent residence here. His business 
flourished so well that, five years later, he opened 
a sumptuous house at the corner of Chartres and 
Toulouse Streets. At the Battle oT New Orleans, 
he served as a member of Captain Beale's com- 
pany of rifles. The story is that, about this time, 
McDonogh fell in love with a Miss Johnson, 
whose parents had removed to New Orleans 
from Baltimore in 1814. Because of differences 
in religion, the young lady's parents refused 
their consent to her marriage with John Mc- 
Donogh ; a few years later. Miss Johnson became 
an Ursuline Nun. Thereupon, McDonogh closed 
his house in the Vieux Carre and repaired to his 
plantation across the river, now McDonoghville. 
As there were no steam ferries prior to 1835, 
McDonogh crossed the river daily in a skiff, 
continuing to do so after the ferries were oper- 
ated. Because of this habit, many persons ac- 
cused him of stinginess. Unaffected by the 
sarcasm, ridicule, and condemnation of his 
former admirers, McDonogh silent the re- 
mainder or his days in solitude, dealing out 
justice and charity to his employees and slaves, 
freeing many of his slaves and providing for the 
future freedom of others, and all the time amass- 
ing a fortune. "And for what purpose?" every 
one asked. John McDonogh never said. It was 
not imtil his will was read after his death in 
1850, that his secret purpose was revealed, 
namely, to benefit by education the youth of 
New Orleans and Baltimore. The passing years 
have removed from his name the stigma of 
miser, and, today, we know him to have been 



132 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



honorable, steadfast, kind, and self-sacrificing, 
a patriotic citizen, and an upright Christian. 

The opening of the will of John McDonogh 
revealed to the public that he had left the bulk 
of his fortune to the cities of Baltimore and New 
Orleans for the education of their youth. All 
that John McDonogh asked in return for his 
gift, was that, once a year, the children of the 
city would strew flowers on his grave. As his 
remains were removed to Baltimore, the monu- 
ment erected in his memory by the public school 
children of the city, has been substituted for his 
grave. On the first Friday of May, delegations 
from every public school in New Orleans, gather 



decoration day. The cemeteries are beautifully 
decked with quantities of gorgeous flowers; the 
large, handsome chrysanthemums being the 
most used. All day, the cities of the dead are 
thronged with the living, whose presence and 
the lavish floral display give a festive air to the 
otherwise sad scenes. The day is prepared for 
months ahead of time by thrifty florists. So 
popular has become the chrysanthemum for all 
Saints ' decoration, that several hundred persons 
are engaged in their cultivation, principally for 
this festival. 

Thajiksgiving Offering. Thanksgiving Day 
is set apart for the public offering of thanks to 




McDONOGH MONUMENT IN LAFAYETTE SQUARI 

— Courte 



nf thL SiuthPin Piciflc R. E. 



in Lafayette Square, and mass beautiful flowers 
about McDonogh 's monument, while singing the 
pretty McDonogh song. Owing to other bene- 
factors of the public schools being honored on 
this day, the name of the day has been changed 
to Founders' Day, but uppermost in the minds 
and hearts of all is the name of John McDonogh, 
the foremost of the public school benefactors. 

All-Saints '. All-Saints ' Day is celebrated on 
the first of November; it is of Catholic origin, 
being the day, on which the memory of all the 
saints, is honored by the Catholic Church. All- 
Saiijts i,s now a state holiday; it is the Louisiana 



God for the prosperity, peace and happiness of 
the nation. It is a holiday, and so appropriately 
celebrated in the home by a bountiful Thanks- 
giving dinner. The children of the public 
schools bring a Thanksgiving offering to school 
on the eve of the holiday; this oft'ering consists 
of anything from an onion and an Irish potato 
to a delicate pastry or jelly. After all the offer- 
ings have been collected, they are sorted and 
sent to the needy homes, orphan asylums, and 
homes for the aged in the district of the school. 
Thus do the more prosperous share with their 
poorer neighbors, and Thanksgiving morning 



THE N£W ORLEANS BOOKl 



133 



sees all united in thanking God for His public 
and personal benefactions. 

St. Roch's. St. Eoch's is one of the most in- 
teresting cemeteries in New Orleans ; principally 
because of its unusual origin. An epidemic 
bi'oke out in the city in the year 1866- '67. 
Father Thevis, then pastor of the Catholic Ger- 
man parish in the rear of the Third District, 
made a vow that if none of his parishioners 
should succumb to the epidemic, he would with 
his own hands erect a chapel in thanksgiving. 
The whole parish united in prayer to St. Eoch. 
As the epidemic did not cause the death of any 
of- his congregation, the old pastor built the 
chapel and called the place "Campo Santo," 
"Holy Field." The chapel 
is of beautiful Gothic 
architecture and is similar 
to the mortuary chapels 
found in Austria and Hun- 
gary. Over the altar is a 
statue of St. Eoch, which 
represents him with his 
favorite dog that fed him 
when he lay suffering from 
the plague, in the forest 
near Bingen, Germany. St. 
Eoch's became famed as 
a miracle-working shrine, 
attested to, by the hun- 
dreds of votive tablets ex- 
pressive of the gratitude 
of the donors; these are 
placed on all sides of the 
altar, and many candles 
are kept continually burn- 
ing before this altar. A 
little cemetery has grown 
up about the chapel; within the little edifice, 
the side tiers of vaults are reserved for the 
members of the societies of St. Anne and St. 
Joseph ; the holy founder lies buried in the crypt 
under the sanctuary. There are many legends 
connected with St. Eoch's, such as, that if a 
young woman prayed in the chapel regularly 
every evening she would have a husband before 
the year would be out ; another is that if a maid 
look into the well at St. Eoch's, she would see 
reflected on its smooth surface the face of her 
future husband; of course, she must not look 
into the well when alone. 

Charivari. The charivari is among the dis- 
tinctly odd customs of New Orleans. In me- 




ST. ROCH'S CHAPEL, 



diaeval times in France, persons entering into 
a second marriage, were given a ' ' mocking sere- 
nade, produced by the beating of pans and 
kettles mingled with groans and hisses"; this 
peculiar serenade was called a "charivari." 
The custom still survives among the Creoles of 
Louisiana; however, it is now considerably less 
boisterous in New Orleans than in the rural dis- 
tricts. There have been numberless "charivaris," 
but perhaps none have attained the celebrity of 
the one accorded the fair, young widow of Don 
Andres Alomnaster y Eoxas. Miss King relates 
in "New Orleans: The Place and the People," 
that for three days and three nights the crowd 
followed the fleeing couple, "up and down the 
city, to and fro across the 
river," until finally they 
made their escape from 
the city. 

July Fourteenth. French- 
men 's Day is celebrated 
annually on July four- 
teenth. It was July 14, 
1789, that the Paris mob, 
in whom opioression had 
aroused the spirit of revo- 
lution, attacked the Bas- 
tille, the state prison, for 
five hours. The huge 
stronghold withstood the 
attack, but the guard with- 
in forced De Launey, the 
captain, to surrender; he 
did so, however, on the 
condition that no harm 
should be done. Seven 
prisoners well deserving 
their fate, were the only 
ones found in the prison. Five officers and three 
men were killed by the populace. De Launey 
was murdered in the street and his head stuck 
on a pike. This began the Eevolution in France, 
known as the "Eeign of Terror" because of its 
fearful atrocities, which overthrew the rule of 
the Bourbon kings, and was itself only crushed 
by the despotism of Napoleon Bonapart. The 
republican form of government, different, how- 
ever, from that in the United States, finally 
obtained control in France. The French of to- 
day, thus celebrate July Fourteenth as their In- 
dependence Day. 

The Volksfest. The "Volksfest" is held at 
the Fair Grounds on the last Sunday in May. 



134 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



It is given by the Grerman residents for the pur- 
pose of raising funds for the snpport of the 
German Protestant Orphans' Home. Tlie Volks- 
fest was first held in New Orleans in 1874. The 
festival was introduced from Germany, where 
the "Volksfest" — people's festival, is held in 
the spring of the year. These festivals are char- 
acterized by the games or sports peculiar to the 
district and sometimes take their name from a 



special sport. The New Orleans Volksfest differs 
from the German in its purpose, namely, to raise 
funds for charity instead of only to entertain 
and amuse the people. 

TOPICS: Section 1, People; Section 2, Customs. 

REFERENCES: Guide to New Orleans, 1884; Picayune 
Guide Book; Eliza Eipley, Social Life in Old New Or- 
leans; Grace King, New Orleans — The Place ami the 
People; Alcce Fortier, Louisiana Studies. 



CHAPTER XV. 



City Government. 



SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION. 



The Well-Governed Home. "Ah! what a 
splendid home I", said the visitor, smiling ap- 
provingly. The house of which he spoke was 
very modest; but let us approach it as did the 
appreciative visitor. The banquette was clean 
and in repair; the simple iron fence was well 
painted; within was a small garden, where 
lovely flowers blossomed unhampered by any 
rank growth of weeds. The home sat in the 
midst of the garden and lawn and, like its sur- 
roundings, was in good condition, not in the 
least in need of repair; its cleanliness fairly 
sparkled. A peep into the interior of the home 
■revealed every comfort and a few luxuries. 
Children's merry voices resounded about the 
premises. At the sound of the dinner bell, there 
was a flurry of movement and then the family 
gathered about the inviting board. At one end 
of the table, the smiling mother saw to the needs 
of each of the rosy-cheeked youngsters, amid a 
happy chatter about the doings of each one, dis- 
cussions of which were referred to the proud 
father at the other end of the table. Each had 
his report to make about that day's activities. 

What was it that made that home "splen- 
did," as the visitor said? GOA^RNMENT. 
The father and mother were the head of the 
family. They saw that each member had his or 
her special chores to accomplish, and that each 
one did their share and took up responsibility 
for the whole, inasmuch as each one would not do 
anything to cause disorder. No one would throw 
paper, fruit peelings, etc., about the premises, 
nor ruthlessly tear up the grass and flowers, nor 
• jab holes in the pavement, nor scribble on the 
paint. 

What was the result! A fair home, the joy 
of the inmates and the admiration of the visitors. 

Need of Government in the City. If govern- 
ment is so necessary in the home for the main- 
tenance of order, securing of cooperation, and 
making progress, how much more necessary is 
it in a home of hundreds of thousands of people, 



a big city ! And as the needs of the city are the 
vastly magnified needs of the family, so the 
tokens by which the visitor judges the family, 
are those, vastly magnified, by which he judges 
the city, namely, the appearance of the city, the 
spirit of the citizens (the members of the city 
family), and the work accomplished by the 
citizens. 

As the father and mother governed the 
family, so the persons chosen by the people of 
the city, govern the city; and when, like the two 
parents of whom we have been speaking, they 
do their work well, the citizens are busy and 
contented, and make annually (everything is on 
such a bigger scale) reports about their wonder- 
ful work. 

Civic Interest — A Duty. Do you think the 
liome we have been considering would be so 
splendid if all the members of the family were 
not interested in making and keeping it in such 
condition? Surely not. Suppose four-year-old 
Tommy decided to use a flower-bed as a garbage 
can, and threw all the banana peelings into it. 
Six-3rear-old Mary might happen by and care- 
fully remove it to its proper receptacle; but, 
while Mary would be so engaged, the chore, 
that had been assigned to her, of gathering the 
violets for the dinner table, would be neglected. 
Some one else, trying to accomplish Mary's 
work, would leave his own undone. So, be- 
cause of poor Tommy's disorderly act the en- 
tire household arrangement would be somewhat 
upset. 

Now let lis make the aplication to our huge 
family — our city. A couple of thousand Tommies 
unthinkingly throw jDeelings, paper wrappings, 
bits of old clothes, food, etc., in the streets, even 
in the beautiful squares and parks. A large 
number of workmen are kept employed cleaning 
up after these careless citizens; another set of 
men have to mount guard to protect the public 
gTounds and prevent these thoughtless citizens 
from committing such disorderly acts. And all 



136 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



this labor and money spent on cleaning up and 
preventing disorderly deeds, could be used in 
improving the eity,^f there were no disorderly 
Tommies. ) 

Do you think four-year-old Tommy has any 
right to turn into a garbage receptacle, the 
pretty flower-bed, which his father has had the 
gardener make? NO. Has any member of the 
city family the right to deface the appearance 
of the city? NO. It is then the duty of each 
one to refrain from committing disorderly acts, 
and to labor, each one according to his ability 
and position, to improve the city; to discover 
the needs of the city, and how to meet these 
needs; to take an interest in the government of 
the city, since it is all the voters of the city who 
choose the government and select the persons to 
do the governing of the city; to see that the 
work of governing is assigned to responsible 
]3ersons; to recognize and appreciate good gov- 
erning, as well as con- 
deum and punish bad gov- 
erning. Suppose Johnnie 
was given the weeding 
of the garden, and after 
working three days and 
removing every weed, he 
told his father about his 
work and his father paid 
no attention t6 him, never 
said an appreciative 
word, nor looked at the 
well-ordered garden. Do 
you think Johnnie would 
in the future care very 
much as to whether he 
would do his work well 
or ill? So with those per- 
sons whom the people of 

the city select to do their governing. If the people 
of the city never become acquainted with their 
work, let alone appreciate it, take no interest 
in the public work of the city, do you think the 
public officers will feel encouraged to do better, 
or will realize their responsibility to the people, 
when the people pay no attention to the affairs 
of the city? 

Charter of New Orleans. New Orleans be- 
came a chartered city in 1805, that is, she was 
then granted a charter by the Legislature of the 
Orleans Territory. The charter gave her the 
right to govern herself in a special manner de- 
scribed therein. Every time the people of New 




Orleans have desired a change in the govern- 
ment, they have had to apply to the State Legis- 
lature for such permission; when it was to 
be a complete change, a new charter would be 
gTanted. 

Government of New Orleans, 1805-1912. Be- 
tween 1805 and 1912, the government was gen- 
erally "aldermanic." The city was governed 
by a mayor and aldermen; the number of alder- 
men varied under different charters. The elec- 
tors voted for the mayor and aldermen either 
at large or according to wards. The mayor and 
aldermen formed the city council and made and 
enforced the laws and took charge of the city's 
finances. Sometimes the aldermen were divided 
into two bodies, other times they served as one 
body. 

Besides the "aldermanic" fonn, there was 
the "department" or "bureau" form of gov- 
ernment. Under this form, the work of govern- 
ing the city was divided 
into two departments 
or bureaus, as finance, 
public property, public 
works, etc.; each depart- 
ment had its head officer 
and assistants. The heads 
of each department with 
the mayor formed the city 
council. 

The last form of gov- 
ernment in the city be- 
fore 1912 was the "alder- 
manic." This form of 
government with the 
large number of council- 
men, was considered to 
be unsatisfactory, prin- 
cipally because it pre- 
vented the holding of any one in particular re- 
sponsible for the government's acts. A change 
was then agreed upon. 

Commission Plan of City Government. A 
form of government known as the ' ' commission 
plan" had become popular among medium-sized 
cities in the Mississippi Valley. This plan pro- 
vided for conducting the business of governing 
a city, in the same manner as oioerating a large 
corporation. The plan provided for a mayor in 
charge of the city's public affairs and divided 
the rest of the city government into four depart- 
ments, each in charge of a commissioner; (1) de- 
partment of finance; (2) public works; (3) 



THE CITY HALL. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



137 



police and fire prevention; (4) public property. 
The mayor and four commissioners formed the 
commission council and had to make and enforce 
the laws of the city, make appointments, make 
improvements, award contracts, and vote appro- 
priations, Provision was made for holding the 
mayor and commissioners responsible for the 
faithful and satisfactory performance of their 
duties, and removing them from office in case of 
misdeeds or inability to discharge the duties of 
their office. The voters of the city could have a 
law repealed, that is, made inactive; again, they 
could have a law passed. 

Commission Plan of Government in New Or- 
leans, 1912. It was decided in 1912 to try this 
plan of government in New Orleans. There was 
much opposition. Many persons held that such 
a form of government was satisfactory in small 
cities, but would prove a failure in a city of the 
size of New Orleans. However, a bill providing 
for a new charter giving New Orleans the com- 



mission form of government, was introduced in 
the legislature in May, 1912, and was passed 
after amendment. The general opinion at pres- 
ent seems to be that the commission form has 
proven better than its predecessors. A new 
era of civic activity has certainly come to life 
since 1912. 

Political Divisions of New Orleans. New Or- 
leans is divided into seven municipal districts, 
corresponding to the gTowth of the city by the 
annexation of adjoining towns. Besides the 
municipal districts, there is the division of the 
city into wards; each of the seventeen wards is 
entitled to one representative in the General As- 
sembly of Louisiana. The wards are subdivided 
into precincts — police precincts and polling pre- 
cincts. A police precinct is the district under 
the supervision of one police station. A polling- 
precinct is a certain district within which there 
is a polling booth, where the voters residing in 
that district must cast their votes. 



SECTION 2. COMMISSION COUNCIL. 



Members of the Commission Council. The 

Commission Council is composed of five mem- 
bers, namely, the Mayor and four Commission- 
ers. The members of the Council must be qual- 
ified electors of the City of New Orleans; they 
are elected at large, that is, all are voted for by 
all the electors of the city without any regard 
to districts ; they serve for a term of four years. 
The Mayor and Commissioners must furnish a 
bond of $50,000 for the faithful performance of 
the duties of their respective offices. The Mayor 
receives an annual salary of $10,000, and each of 
the Commissioners, $6,000. 

Vacancies. "When a vacancy occurs in the 
Commission Council, the Council must appoint 
a qualified person to serve for the unexpired por- 
tion of the term; during the vacancy, a quorum 
(a majority) of the whole Council exercises the 
powers of such officer. 

Meetings. The Commission Council meets 
on the first Tuesday evening of each month, and 
as often as is thought necessary. If the returns 
of an election are to be opened, the meeting must 
be held in daylight. Meetings of the Commis- 
sion Council are open to the public. The Mayor, 
or in his absence, the acting Mayor, presides at 
the meetings; the Mayor cannot veto a measure. 



but either he or two Commisison Councilmen 
must sign every resolution or ordinance passed 
by the Council, after which, it must be recorded 
before going into effect. 

Publication. The Mayor must have all ordi- 
nances and resolutions of the Council published 
and the clerk of the Council must have all pro- 
ceedings of the Council published for the in- 
formation of the public. These publications 
must be in a daily newspaper of New Orleans, 
which shall have been in existence at least a 
year previous to the contract; a contract for 
publication must be given out at least every two 
years at public auction to the lowest bidder. The 
newspaper so contracting has to give security 
for the faithful j^erformance of the work. 

Council Elections. . Many important city offi- 
cials, such as the City Attorney, City Notary, 
Clerk of the Commission Council, Auditor of 
Public Accounts, City Engineer, City Chemist, 
Chief Engineer of the Fire Department, and 
others, are elected by a majority vote of the 
Commission Council, either at the first meet- 
ing of the Council or as soon thereafter as 
possible. 

Powers of the Commission Council. The en- 
tire powers and duties of government of the city 



138 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



are vested in tlie Commission Coiineil. The 
Council has not only the power, but the duty, to 
preserve peace and good order in the city, and 
to that end may make and enforce laws; and to 
provide for city improvements. The Council 
must see that cleanliness and health are main- 



tained in the city; that thoroughfares are kept 
open to traffic; that there are efficient police and 
fire departments, and a good system of public 
lighting; that the education of the city's youth 
is properly provided for by means of schools 
and libraries; that public works are maintained. 



SECTION 3. DEPARTMENTS. 



Distribution of Powers. The Mayor, because 
of his office, is Commissioner of the Department 
of Public AiJairs. At the first regular meeting 
after the election, the Commission Council by 
a majority vote assigns one Commission Coun- 
cilman to each of the other four departments 
(public finances, safety, utilities, and property) 
to be Commissioner of that department.. The 
Commissioner of the Department of Public 
Finances, because of his office, is City Treasurer 
and serves as acting Mayor in the absence of the 
Mayor. 

Department of Public Affairs. The Mayor is 
the head of the city government and has super- 
vision of all parts of the city government. He 
is by virtue of his office a member of all city 
boards and eonniiisisons. He has charge of the 
seal of the city, which he affixes to all official 
acts. He has the power to administer oaths. He 
represents the city in all legal matters. 

Department of Public Finances. This de- 
partment has charge of the city's moneys. Ac- 
counts must be kept of the receipts and expendi- 
tures of all public moneys. The Commissioner 
of this department is in the absence of the May- 
or, the acting Mayor. 

Department of Public Safety. The Public 
Safety Department is charged, as its name tells, 
with the maintenance of pul)lic safety. For this 
l)urpose, there are maintained the police and 
fire departments, board of health and public 
charities. The fire department has charge of 
the inspection of premises, with a view to their 



being to a certain extent fire-proof, and main- 
tains an efficient force of firemen and engines 
to combat fires. The police department has a 
body of policemen whose duty it is to see that 
the laws are obeyed and that violators of the 
laws are brought to trial in court. The board of 
health has to see that sanitary conditions are 
maintained iii the city. (See Cliapter IV. Health 
Conditions.) 

Department of Public Utilities. This de- 
partment has charge of public utilities. The 
Commissioner of Pulblic Utilities adjudges at 
public auction franchises, contracts, and grants 
to the highest or lowest bidder, according as the 
case may require. A franchise is a privilege 
granted by the city to an individual or corpora- 
tion to operate a public utility under certain 
conditions for a specified time. 

Department of Public Property. Streets and 
alleys, parks and playgrounds, public buildings, 
public baths, and other public property, except 
the Public Belt Railroad, are controlled by this 
department. The Commissioner of PubMe Pro- 
perty with his assistants, has charge of the 
draining, paving, lighting, cleaning, and beauti- 
fying of the streets, j^arks, playgrounds, and 
other public places; much of the work is given 
out in contracts; there are park commissions 
that have charge of the parks and different pub- 
lic squares and places. This department, how- 
ever, sees directly to the cleaning and watering 
of the streets, removal of garbage, and street 
paving. (See Chapter XVI.. The clty Beautiful.) 



SECTION 4. CITY BOARDS. 



Commissioners of Civil Service. In order to 
have better service in departments, where it is 
necessary that the employees have a certain edu- 
cational training, the emi^loyees in such depart- 



ments have been placed under civil service. By 
being placed under civil service is meant that 
they are examined as to their qualifications 
necessary to hold the position, and after Iteing 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



139 



permanently appointed cannot be removed from 
office without grave cause, until the term of tlie 
appointing officer shall have expired. Positions 
under civil' service thus have a certain perma- 
nence. 

The civil service is controlled by the Board 
of Commissioners of Civil Sei'vice. This board 
is composed of the Mayor and two Commission- 
ers selected by the Commission Council. Ap- 
plicants in order to become eligible to appoint- 
ment must make an average of at least seventy 
per cent; this eligibility expires on January 
thirty-first of each year. The first six months after 
an applicant is appointed is a period of probation ; 
if he is not discharged during that time, he is 
entitled to hold the position until the expiration 
of the term of office of the appointing officer. 

All Confederate veterans with good records 
are excused from any examination. 

Board of Directors of the Public Schools. 
The Board of Directors of the Public Schools of 
the Parish of Orleans consists of five members, 
who must be electors. In 1912, these members 
were elected for four years. In 1916, five mem- 
bers shall be elected; the three receiving the 
highest number of votes shall serve for four 
years and the two receiving the lowest number 
of votes shall serve for two years. After that 
each group shall serve for four years. By this 
regulation, the entire membership of the board 
will not be changed at the same time. The elec- 
tion of the members of the Board of Public 
School Directors must be non-partisan, that is, 
without regard to political parties. There must 
be a separate column on the ballot with the 
heading "Board of School Directors;" the 
names of the candidates are placed in alpha- 
betical order in this column. All the public 
schools of the Parish of Orleans and the manage- 
ment, property thereof, course of study and 
grading thereof, including text books to be used 
therein, are under the control of this Board of 
Directors. 

The Board of Directors must elect a com- 
petent and experienced educator to be superin- 



tendent of the schools; this election must take 
place on July thirteenth of every fourth year 
after July thirteenth of the year 1913. The 
Board must also elect as many assistant super- 
intendents as may be necessary; there must be 
an attendance officer and such other officers, 
clerks, and assistants as may be necessary to prop- 
erly conduct the public schools of the parish. 

The schools are supported by funds derived 
from apportionment of the State taxes, interest 
on proceeds of lands granted by the United 
States for the support of the schools, all poll tax 
receipts in the Parish of Orleans, funds from the 
Board of Liquidation of the city debt, fines and 
forfeitures, rent of school lands, and the city 
appropriation, which may not be less than eight- 
tenths of a mill of the ten mill, city expense tax. 
The State also contributes specially to the sup- 
port of domestic science schools. 

Board of Commissioners of the Orleans 
Levee District. This board is composed of nine 
members possessing all the requisites of an elec- 
tor; seven members are appointed by the Gov- 
ernor of the State from the seven municipal dis- 
tricts of the city ; the other two members are the 
Mayor and the Commissioner of Public Works, 
who are ex-officio members. The board has 
charge of the construction and repair, and is 
vested with the control and maintenance of all 
levees in the Orleans District. 

Board of Directors of Public Libraries. The 
public libraries are managed by a board of ten 
members. This board was originally appointed 
by the Mayor and City Council; vacancies, since 
occuring, are filled by the board itself. The 
members serve for life or until resignation. The 
Mayor is ex-officio a member and, on going out 
of office of the mayoralty, becomes a permanent 
member. The libraries are maintained by 
means of donations and special city appropria- 
tion ; the city is under contract with Mr. Andrew 
Carnegie to appropriate annually for the sup- 
port of the libraries, an amount equal to at least 
ten per cent of Mr. Carnegie's gift, which was 
$375,000. 



SECTION 5. ELECTIONS. 



Elections. An election is a choice of officials 
or acceptance or rejection of laws by popular 
vote. The parochial and municipal elections in 



New Orleans are held on the Tuesday following 
the first Monday of November, 1916,^and every 
fourth year thereafter. 



140 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



Electors. Electors are those j)ersons whom 
the state permits to vot-e in elections. In Lou- 
isiana, electors are males over twenty-one years 
of age and having certain qualifications, namely, 
residential, educational or property, and poll 
tax qualifications. 

(1) Residential — An elector must be a resi- 
dent of the state for two years, of the parish one 
year, and of the precinct six months preceding 
an election. Removal from a precinct, however, 
does not operate against an elector until sis 
months thereafter. 

(2) Educational — An elector must be able to 
write his apphcation for registration in English 
or in his own tongue, or, if prevented from so 
doing by a physical disability, the registration 
officer or deputy may write it at his dictation, 
under liis oath attesting his disabilty. 

(3) Property — The possession of property 
assessed at $300 and on which all taxes are paid, 
serves in lieu of the educational qualification. 

(4) Poll Tax — Electors between the ages of 
twenty-one and sixty years must pay a poll tax of 
a dollar a year, which tax is used to help support 
the public schools of the parish. Poll taxes are 
liens only upon assessed property. In order for 
an elector to vote at an election, he must have 
paid his poll tax for two years preceding that in 
which he desires to vote. This tax must be paid 
on or before December 31st of each year. 

Registration. No elector may vote in an 
election without first registering. There is a 
special registration office in the City Hall, where 
electors register; this office is closed to register- 
ing for thirty day before an election. An elec- 
tor registers by going to the registration office 
and filling in or having filled, as the case may 
be, the registration blank; this blank, when fill- 
ed out, is a statement of the elector's residen- 
tial and educational or property qualifications. 
When the elector has filled in the registration 
blank, the registration officer gives him a cer- 
tificate of registration; this certificate is similar 
to a check; it bears the elector's registration 
number and is attached to a stub, which remains 



in the book when the certificate is given to the 
elector. The registration officer compiles books 
for each polling precinct, containing the name, ad- 
dress, registration number, and qualifications of 
each elector in that precinct. These books are kept 
at the polling booths on election day for verifica- 
tion of the certificates presented by the electors. 

Ballot. The ballot, is the official form for 
voting. The names of the candidates for office 
are arranged in parallel colunms according to 
pai'ties, each party has a column at the head of 
which is the party name and emblem. There is 
a space left by the parties and candidates' 
name for checking by the electors. 

In the case of a primary election, the names 
are arranged on the ballot according to offices, 
as the ballot is a party ballot. 

Voting. The polling precincts are open from 
six o'clock in the morning until seven in the eve- 
ning. During this time, an elector must cast his 
vote. He must present to the election com- 
missioners his certificate of registration and his 
poll tax receipts; should he have lost his poll 
tax receipts, he is still allowed to vote if his 
name is on the official list of poll tax payers, 
issued by the City Treasurer, copies of which 
list are kept at every polling booth. He is then 
given a ballot by the election commissioners. 
The elector casts the ballot in secret; he votes 
by checking the sjoace after a party name, thus 
voting for all that pai-ty's nominees for office, 
or else he checks the space after each preferred 
candidate's name, checking not more than one 
name for each office; he then folds the ballot, the 
names inward, and drops it in the ballot box. 

Counting the Votes. The polling booth is 
closed at seven o 'clock in the evening. The com- 
missioners of election then compile lists of the 
number of votes awarded each candidate for 
office. These statements are sworn to, placed in 
sealed packages, and delivered to the Mayor or 
acting Mayor. The Mayor or acting Mayor 
opens in public on the Monday following the 
election these sealed packages and declares the 
result of the election. 



SECTION 6. TAXATION. 



Purpose. The people are taxed for the sup- 
port of the government, public education, and 
libraries, the operation of the sewerage and 



water plant, the maintenance of levees, and the 
payment of the city debt. 

Assessment. There is a board, called the 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



141 



Board of Assessors, whose duty it is to assess 
all property, real and personal, within the limits 
of the city. To Assess property is to place a 
certain value upon it. Property may not be as- 
sessed above its actual value. It is upon this 
assessed valuation that the owner must pay his 
tas. For instance, suppose a man owned a 
piece of property for which he had paid $5,500, 
and the assessed valuation is $4,000. The rate 
of tax being twenty-two mills on every dollar 
of assessed valuation, he would then have to pay 
twenty-two mills on every dollar of the $4,000, 
not of the $5,500; thus his tax would be $88. 

Rate of Tax. The total rate of tax for the 
city is twenty-two mills on every dollar of as- 
sessed valuation of property. Ten of these 



twenty-two mills form what is known as the 
city expense tax; ten mills are used to pay the 
interest and redeem the city bonds; the other 
two mills are used for the payment of the sewer- 
age and water bonds. The city taxes are col- 
lected in July. Besides the city taxes, there are 
the State taxes for the support of the State and 
maintenace of the levees in the Parish of Or- 
leans; six mills on every dollar of assessed valu- 
ation are collected for defraying the expenses of 
the State; three other mills on every dollar of 
assessed valuation are collected for the main- 
tenance of the levees in the Parish of Orleans. 
Thus in the Parish of Orleans (City of New Or- 
leans) the total State tax is nine mills; this tax 
is collected in December. 



SECTION 7. RECORDERS' COURTS. 



Number. There may not be less than three 
police courts in the City of New Orleans, which 
are known as Eecorders' Courts. 

Officers. Each such court has one judge 
called the Recorder, appointed by the Commis- 
sion Council at a salary not exceeding $2,500. He 
must be at least thirty-five years old and a resi- 
dent of the city for five years prior to his election 
to office. The Council also appoints a clerk and 
the necessary assistant clerks. The Board of 
Police Commissioners details four policemen to 
each Recorder 's Court to keep order and execute 
the orders and decrees of the Recorders. 



Control. These courts are under the control 
of the Commission Coimcil. 

Appeals. Appeals may be made from these 
courts to the Criminal Distxict Court. 

Powers of the Recorders' Courts. All 
fines, penalties or forfeitures imposed by the 
Recorders, must be collected by them and by_ 
them- paid daily to the City Treasurer; they 
must give to the person paying the fine or 
]>enalty, a receipt stating the amount of the 
fine or penalty, the date, from whom col- 
lected, name of the person fined, and for what 
offense. 



SECTION 8. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE COMMISSION 
FORM OF GOVERNMENT. 



Initative, Referendum, and Recall. The 

commission form of city government has three 
distinct features, namely, the "initiative," "re- 
ferendum," and "recall." 

By the "initiative," the voters may origi- 
nate legislation; this is done by 30 per cent of 
qualified voters demanding of the Council the 
passage of a measure; should the Council not 
pass it, they must submit it to the vote of the 
electors, a majority of whom can pass it over 
the opposition of the Council, 



Ordinances, except for the immediate pre- 
servation of the public peace, health, or safety, 
do not go into effect before ten days following 
their final passage; by the "referendum," the 
qualified electors may within those ten days de- 
mand of the Council to repeal the ordinance or 
submit it to the vote of the qualified voters. 
Ordinances that are passed by the majority of 
the electors, may be repeald only by a majority 
vote of the electors. Special elections for pass- 
ing or repealing ordiiiances, may not be held 



142 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



oftener than once in a period of six mouths, nor 
within ninety days of a general municipal 
election. 

The charter provides that "the Mayor and 
Commission Councilmen may be removed from 
office or recalled therefrom in the manner now 
or hereafter provided by the Constitution." 
The Constitution does not provide for the "re- 



call' of officers, but an amendment establishing 
the recall was jDassed by the vote of the people 
Nevember 3, 1914. 

TOPICS: Section 1, Introduction; Section 2, Commission 
Council; Section 3, Departments; Section 4, City Boards; 
Section 5, Elections; Section 6, Taxation; Section 7, 
Recorders' Courts; Section 8, Distinctive Features of 
the Commission Form of Government. 

REFERENCES: Charter of the City of New Orleans, 1912; 
Constitution of the State of Louisiana. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



The City Beautiful. 



SECTION 1. CITY BUILDING. 



Conditions Governing the Location of 
Cities. In the early history of nations, cities 
were located where the best natural means of 
defense were offered. As the strength of their 
armies increased, natural means of defense 
were considered of secondary importance in 
the selection of a site. Commerce and indus- 
tries were developed during eras of peace. 
Consequently, cities grew and fioiTrished where 
easy access by water and good harbors favored 
trade, where swift streams afforded power to 
run their mills, or wlieje mineral de]3osits 
awaited the hand of man to convert them into 
wealth. The perfection of the railroad has 
largely removed dependence upon water com- 
munication: inland towns, far from navigable 
lakes or rivers, have sprung up as the distrib- 
uting points for great agricultural districts. 
One or more of these conditions has led to the 
establishment of American cities. The natural 
•fortifications around Quebec made that city an 
early center of western civilization; New York, 
on the other hand, possessed peculiar commer- 
cial advantages; the New England cities were 
the outgrowth of manufactures; and most of 
the cities of the Eocky Mountain States owe 
tlieir rise to the untold mineral wealth of the 
section and the construction of great railroads. 

City Building in Ancient Times, A 
woman. Queen Semiramis, had decided to con- 
struct upon the banks of the Euphrates River 
the greatest city in the world, and thus, for 
the first time known to history, a city, Babylon, 
was built in accordance with a definite plan. 

The Greeks, laboring for the attainment 
of knowledge and beauty, enjoyed the highest 
civilization of ancient times. The city of 
Athens, a city of exquisite beauty and long the 
western world's center of art and letters, was 
the noblest expression of their cultured civili- 
zation. 

Eome becoming by her military prowess 
the supreme power in the western world, drew 



to herself the best talent of the conquered 
peoples. Thus she was able to erect the mag- 
nificent temples and palaces that adorned her 
seven hilis, and to construct the military roads, 
solid masonry bridges, and remarkable aque- 
ducts that displayed engineering skill of the 
highest order. 

Value of Permanency. The works of the 
Greeks and Romans in great part have de- 
fied the ravages of time and the elements; this 
is the result of the work of builders to whom 
permanency was as much an ideal as beauty. 
These people, to have left such wonderful 
monuments attesting their existence as proud 
and powerful nations, must have been actuated 
by a tremendous civic spirit. 

Paris. The right building of modern cities, 
combining healthfulness, utility, and beauty, 
was first undertaken in France. In the early 
fifties, when Napoleon III. was emperor of 
France, Baron Haussmann and M. Alphand, the 
city engineer, drew up a wonderful plan for 
renovating and embellishing Paris. Crooked, 
narrow streets were straightened and widened 
into magnificent boulevards; broad avenues, 
connecting open space with open space, were 
laid out through densely populatecl districts; 
places, parks, and avenues were beautified with 
trees and masterpieces of art. Hence it has 
been said of Napoleon III. in regard to Paris 
that "he found it brick and left it marble." 

Pre-Eminence of Germans in City Plan- 
ning. The German city is to-day the best ex- 
ample of community life and city planning. 
The reasons of this may be found in the system, 
thoroughness, and perseverance of the Ger- 
man people, combined with their high stand- 
ard of perfection; in the splendid organization 
of German institutions; and in the extraordi- 
nary industrial progress and consequent in- 
crease in urban population, during the past 
quarter century. City planning has become 
both an art aad a science in Germanv. Berlin 



144 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



supports a college of town planning, wliile, in 
Dusseldorf, there is a university where the 
study of city planning and administration is 
fostered. The German school is distinguished 
by a preponderance of the artistic motive which 
at the same time implies the practical. They 
plan their cities to be beautiful. Nothing in- 
harmonious or ugly is allowed to exist. But 
they also plan them to be the homes of the or- 
dinarjr citizens, with surroundings most con- 
ducive to health, contentment, and efficiency. 

Some Causes of German Success. The suc- 
cess of German cities lies in the freedom and 
power of the municipality. The activities of 
a city are practically unrestricted by the state 
or the central government. On the other hand, 
the municipality has the power over the in- 
dividual unknown in any American city. The 
city determines the width of streets, the height 
of buildings — German cities do not tolerate 
skyscrapers — the minimum garden space, the 
maximum area to be covered by improvements, 
the character of improvements in any section. 
Architectural plans must be submitted to the 
authorities to insure proportion and har- 
mony; factories must be located in the suburbs, 
upon a railroad, and on the lee side of the 
city; all industries occasioning noise or odors 
must be so placed as to be inoffense to the 
populace. The rights of the {individual are 
subservient to the welfare of ^he community, 
but this is never questioned, as the greatest 
benefit is ultimately obtained. The city owns 
savings banks, mortgage institutions; it oper- 
ates its own gas-works, electric-lighting works, 
water plant, street railways, and many other 
undertakings of a profitable nature which place 
it upon a firm business basis. German city 
planners are successful because they study the 
claims of the past, needs of the present, and 
the prospects of the future; because they plan 
in a broad-visioned way, allowing for develop- 
ment and expansion, and thus insure perma- 
nency; because they overlook nothing in urban 
life as too great or too trivial to be considered 
in striving for utility, harmony, and artistic 
effectiveness. 

German Cities. Dusseldorf, a city about 
the size of New Orleans, is typical of the suc- 
cessful German city. Aroused by the indus- 
trial activity following the Franco-Prussian 
War, the city undertook a comprehensive plan 
for improving existing conditions, opening 



parks, and erecting imposing public buildings, 
and, with intelligent prevision of the future, 
purchasing at agricultural prices large tracts 
of land in the suburbs, thereby protecting itself 
from speculative prices and preventing fluctu- 
ation of real estate values. 

The problem of relieving congestion and 
improving conditions in an old town has been 
scientifically attacked by Cologne. Encircling 
fortifications, which restricted the growth of 
the city, were demolished, and the site was 
converted into an octagonal parkway or 
boulevard separating the old town from the 
new. In the official plan for suburban devel- 
opment, Cologne, a city rich in relics of the 
past, seeks to reproduce the quaint, irregular 
streets and mediaeval architecture of the old 
town. 

Frankfort-on-the.Main, with its magnifi- 
cent public buildings, its Eathaus or city hall, 
its opera-house, its railway station; with its 
colossal undertaking of waterway improve- 
ment and harbor construction; with its mu- 
nicipal activities, and its immaculate cleanli- 
ness, shows what can be accomplished by a 
community with civic pride and civic interest. 

A heritage of great beauty has been left 
Munich by extravagant rulers. A city of 
splendid civic centers, with groups of public 
buildings, a city of carefully designed streets 
and remarkable vistas, like Cologne, it pre- 
serves in its planning the atmosphere of me- 
diaeval times. 

The Prussian capital is a thoroughly 
modern city. Berlin's chief attractiveness is 
in its imposing government buildings, its 
famous Unter den Linden, its beautiful sub- 
urbs, its orderliness, cleanliness, and efficient 
administration. 

Influence of the German Movement. Iso- 
lated instances of city planning existed be- 
fore the Germans seriously considered the sub- 
ject. The energy, interest, and enthusiasm 
with which they attacked their problem and 
the remarkable results obtained have awakened 
a general desire for better sanitary conditions, 
more homogeneous and artistic architecture, 
and more beautiful parks, attractive views, 
and picturesque or striking streets. 

Garden Cities of England. The city plan- 
ning movement in England has developed 
garden cities. The most noted of these are 
Letchworth and Hampstead, whose sites were 



The new ORLEANS BOOK 



145 



purciiased by companies. Neat, attractive cot- 
tages or apartments, stirronnded by gardens, 
are provided the working classes at nominal 
rent. The result in beauty, convenience, health, 
happiness, and efficiency have . fully justified 
the experiment. 

City Planning in America. Few American 
cities have been built along any definite plan; 
they have grown up haphazard, according to 
the press of conditions or the whims of in- 
dividuals. Washington, which ranks as one 
of the most beautiful cities in the world, is a 
notable exception. When a site on the Potomac 
was selected for the national capital. President 
Washington, recognizing systematic planning 
to be necessary for growth, prosperity, and 
artistic development, employed Charles L 'En- 
fant, a young French engineer, to lay out the 
city. The growth of Washington continued 
in accordance with L 'Enfant 's plan. The for- 
mal plan of rectangular blocks crossed by broad, 
diagonal thoroughfares, terminating at circles, 
civic centers, or open squares, is well adapted 
to a city so preeminently official and social. 

The architectural features of Washington's 
imposing buildings are enhanced by the radial 
avenues, affording numerous leafy vistas, as 
the parks and streets of the city on the Potomac 
are the greenest and shadiest in the world. 

Many American cities have drawn their 
inspiration in city planning from the beauty 
of the national capital. The Columbian Ex- 
position, held in Chicago in 1893, demonstrated 
the advantages of spacious approaches and 
proper grouping of well-designed buildings, 
and exerted a marked influence. Chicago 
began to form a definite idea of the "City 



Beautiful" and to evolve a comprehensive plan 
for civic embellishment. 

Cleveland, with characteristic enthusiasm, 
called upon the best talent to create for her a 
plan of utility and compelling beauty. The dom- 
inant feature in the renovation of Cleveland is 
the civic center. Along a broad thoroughfare 
are grouped the principal public buildings 
representative of the great functions of a city. 

Boston, like New Orleans, is a city with 
traditions. These she cherishes and embodies 
in her churches, her inns, her architecture. 
No towering skyscrapers loom up beside 
dark, tunnel-like alleys, or shut out the blessed 
sunlight and fresh air from more lowly neigh- 
bors. Boston further shows her belief in the 
salutary effect of nature's restoratives by her 
admirable system of public parks, and her re- 
gard for the value of beauty and recreation by 
developing and embellishing the water front 
along the Charles Eiver. 

Experts are now at work on a plan that 
will render New York City preeminent in 
civic beauty as she is now in size and wealth. 

Many other American cities are awaken- 
ing to a sense of their responsibility toward 
the citizen. There is a growing realization of 
the need not only of hygienic conditions and 
business facilities in cities, but, also, of beauty; 
for people need, not only good health and 
means of earning a livelihood, but, also, 
sources of right enjoyment and inspiration, 
if they are to accomplish great works. This 
beauty is attained by spacious and tastefully 
adorned streets and parks and by an architec- 
ture characteristic and suitable to the people 
and place. 



SECTION 2. BUILDING OF NEW ORLEANS. 



Original Plan of New Orleans. Bienville, 
having convinced the authorities of the ad- 
vantages of a town on the Mississippi River, 
sent de la Tour to plan the new city. Only a 
few huts built by voyageurs who had come 
down the River occupied the site Bienville had 
chosen. The engineer cleared a strip along 
the River and with the help of some piquers, 
located the streets, dividing the town into rec- 
tangular squares. De la Tour's plan embraced 
the rectangle now bounded by Bienville, North 



Rampart, Barracks, and the River; it provided 
for an open square or Place d'Armes around 
which were to be grouped the parish church, 
school, and government building, and it di- 
vided each square into plots or building sites 
to be given to settlers on condition that they 
should enclose the property with palisades and 
open along the street a ditch to serve as a drain 
for river water in times of inundation; Bien- 
ville selected a site on the outskirts for his 
residence, which, when occupied by the Ursu- 



146 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



lines in 1727, was still "in the depth of the 
forest. ' ' 

Changes in the Shape of New Orleans. . 
The city did not adhere in its growth to this 
rectangular plan. Owing to the greater height 
of land being along the river front and the 
boat landings all being there, the stream of 
settlement took that eonrse also, and the rec- 
tangle was expanded on either side into a cres- 
cent, hence the name, ' ' Crescent City. ' ' Growth 
in population has caused further advance up 
and down the curving River, so that now the 
harbor resembles an elongated "S"; the city 
is now also expanding towards Lake Pont- 
chartrain, in fact reaches the Lake, between 
West End and Spanish Fort. 

Influence of Climate and Available Build- 
ing Material. Before long, the squares near 
the Place d'Armes were covered with rude 
habitations built of logs plastered with clay 
and thatched with palmettoes from the 
nearby swamp. Glass window panes were 
an unknown luxuiy in those days; even Bien- 
ville's house is described as having "the sashes 
covered with fine, thin linen which let in as 
much light as glass and more air." The prim- 
itive structures were gradually replaced by 
larger and better buildings of brick made 
from the abundant clay. Time hardened and 
strengthened this brick, and, as the framework 
and floors were of cypress, a wood unaffected 
by dampness, these buildings were remarkably 
durable. The first Ursuline convent, con- 
structed of brick and cypress in the time of 
Bienville, is the oldest building in the Missis- 
sippi Valley and is still in splendid condition. 
Brick houses became more prevalent, not only 
because of their durability, but also because 
they were much cooler than frame houses. 
Climatic conditions favored the adaptation of 
broad central halls, long galleries shielding 
from intense glare, and thick walls through 
which little heat could penetrate. 

Early French and Spanish Influence. New 
Orleans has an individuality, both charming 
and unique. The Vieux Carre, with its 
narrow streets and close rows of solid, 
somber houses with doi-mer windows and 
batten shutters, looks less a part of an Amer- 
ican city than of some Old World town trans- 
planted to this continent. One reason for the 
compactness of Old New Orleans was the need 
for defense against the Indians; and besides 



the early inhabitants brought with them ideas 
of French and Spanish cities, where the streets 
were made narrow to avoid the direct rays of 
the sun. Spanish architectural features pre- 
dominate because most of the original French 
buildings were destroyed by the devastating 
fires of 1788 and 1794. After that, the tiled 
roofs, still a picturesque feature of the French 
quarter, came into use. The solid walls of 
adobe or brick, paved courtyards, ponderous 
doors, iron-barred windows, massive arched 
doorways, and wrought-iron balconies over- 
hanging the banquettes bespeak Spanish in- 
fluence. On three sides of Jackson Sqiiare are 
the most imposing relics of that influence, 
namely, the old St. Louis Cathedral, Cabildo, 
and Presbytere facing the River, and the red 
brick Pontalba buildings to the sides of the 
Square. 

The courtyard, affording a cool secluded 
place for family rest or recreation, is one of 
the most attractive features of the section 
below Canal Street. Walled in by the gxeat 
houses, these paved courts broaden out behind 
narrow entrances through which the jjasser-by 
may catch delightful glimpses of palms and 
ferns, old-fashioned parten-es, land, occasion- 
ally, a graceful Spanish water jar or iron foun- 
tain. But the individuality of New Orleans is 
more strikingly emphasized by the second-story' 
galleries extending over the banquettes from 
residences, shops, cafes, or old office buildings, 
offering genei'ous shelter from sun and rain. 
There in the heart of the city, where every 
foot of ground bears its burden of masonry or 
timber, these galleries form hanging gardens, 
gay with feathery ferns and potted shrubs — 
bright color against the dingy faces of old 
weatherworn piles. The houses built after the 
Ajnerican occupation are modifications of 
French and Spanish styles. Brick and timber, 
easily obtained from the surrounding country, 
were the chief materials used in their con- 
struction. 

Building Ornamentation. Peculiarly char-, 
acteristic of New Orleans architecture are the 
balustrades and fences of wrought-iron in 
elaborate and intricate patterns. Some show 
conventional desigias, some flowers or trailing 
vines, but one of very beautiful craftsmanship 
represents growing corn laden with ripened 
ears over which the flowering tassel waves with 
singTilar grace. Occasionally, as on the Pon- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



147 



talba buildings and the old St. Louis or Hotel 
Royal, there is a distinctive pattern formed by 
twining initials in the delicate traceries. The 
balustrades, so varied in design and beauty, 
are the work of mastercraftsmen, and are 
treasured as exquisite examples of a now al- 
most lost art. The ingenuity and patient labor 
of these wondrous workers is strikingly proven 
by the fact that among the thousands of balus- 
trades to be found in New Orleans, a duplicate 
is seldom seen. 

American Influence. After the cession of 
1803, the influx of Americans spread the city 
beyond its original limits and gradually 
transformed its architectural types. Some 
old American residences still standing in St. 
Charles Street and lower Carondelet, resemble 
those of the Vieux Carre, but with an open 
lawn or well kept garden instead of the closed 
courtyard. In the Garden District, still one of 
the most beautiful residential sections, fine 
homes with broad verandas supported by 
classic columns bespeak the influence of the 
Colonial style of the Georgian period. Large 
grounds enclosed by high iron fences, hedges, 
or walls complete the dignity and exclusive- 
ness of these homes. 

Modern Homes. To a city so accessible 
by rail and water, lack of material is no 
longer a stumbling block to diversity in build- 
ing. Vermont granite, Tennessee marble, steel 
from Pennsylvania, cypress, oak, walnut, gum, 
and many other useful or ornamental woods 
from Louisiana's forests, have contributed to 
the construction of the New Orleans of today. 
Brick, artistically finished and as durable as 
stone, no longer needs a coat of plaster, and 
is used effectively; it is especially pleasing as 
a background for the white pillars of the En- 
glish colonial residences. The cosmopolitan 
population, as well as variety of material, 
caused a defection from tlie early types of ar- 
chitecture. Indeed, except for public build- 
ings, the architecture of the city at the pres- 
ent day, can hardly be said to possess a type. 
In architecture the practical need comes first, 
but parallel with this is the testhetic need. Un- 
fortunately, both are frequently overlooked in 
the construction of modern dwellings, which, 
too often, are mere shelters for human beings 
or are modelled after plans totally unsuited 
to the climate. New Orleans, so rich in tra- 
ditions, so indelibly marked by a distinctive 



type in her earlier architecture, a type, which, 
in itself, gives her individuality, and charm, 
should, like other cities with older associa- 
tions, seek to perpetuate and vivify this 
indviduality, and increase this charm. Imita- 
tion of other cities is a mistake. She has her 
own ideals. Why should they be forgotten in 
her progress? 

One of the best examples of the French 
colonial type is the Newcomb pottery build- 
ing. It is neither large nor pretentioiis, but 
with its small-paned windows and iron-railed 
balconies adheres closely to the style it repre- 
sents, amply proving that an evolution of the 
native architecture is best suited to the natural 
environments. 

Buildings of Note. As building is the out- 
ward expression of the life of a community, 
some of the most important structures in New 
Orleans have been described in relation to some 
phase of human activity. For example, the 
Post Office, the Custom House, the New Court 
building, are representative structures, and 
found their place's in other chapters. Many 
churches are fine examples of the different 
architectural schools. 

The City Hall was built in 1850 by Gallier 
after the plan of the temple of Minerva on the 
Athenian Acropolis. A broad flight of granite 
steps ascend to the entrance, high above the 
street. Massive Grecian columns support a lofty 
portico, the frieze of which is adorned by a bas- 
relief of Justice and flgiires emblematic of the 
commerce of the Mississippi Valley. 

In the business section of New Orleans ai-e 
several skyscrapers — the Grunewald Hotel, 
Maison Blanche, the Whitney-Central build- 
ing, — none, however, rival the skyscrapers of 
New York. High buildings are unsuited to New 
Orleans, first, it is difficult to secure sufficiently 
firm foundations to bear their weight, and 
second, the concentration of business within 
a small area congests traffijc in streets which 
are scarcely wide enough to accommodate the 
usual procession of vehicles. 

Streets. With the exception of the section 
laid out by de la Tour, New Orleans has never 
been officially planned. The streets have fol- 
lowed the line of least resistance or have been 
opened up by speculators who exploit the at- 
tractiveness of a particular section for im- 
mediate gain rather than for the permanent 
benefit to the community. The result has 



148 



rHE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



been great irregularity and lack of uniformity. 
In general, the streets running north and 
south conform in broad, sweeping curves to 
the dii'ection of the River, and are crossed 
by other streets which converge or radiate, 
sometimes meeting to form triangles, some- 
times ending abruptly at intersections. These 
curves become less evident in streets at a 
distance from the River, and the blocks of 
the newly developed section toward the Lake 
are, for the most part, rectangular. Some 
New Orleans streets have attained more than 
local fame. The narrow streets of the Vieux 
Carre are noted for the picturesqueness and 
Old World charm characteristic of that section. 
Canal Street, the broad thoroughfare 170 feet 
wide, which divides the city into two sec- 
tions — north and south — is the great center of 
the city's retail trade, the heart of its bvisiness 
life. St. Charles Avenue, a shady boulevard 
from Lee Circle to Carrollton Avenue, curves 
with the winding of the River and its width 
of 120 feet affords splendid views on either side 
of the residences in the midst of their lovely 
gardens. The neutral ground is beautified 
with a green sward and crepe myrtles, olean- 
ders, palms, and oaks. The imposing build- 
ings of Tulane and Loyola Universities facing 
Audubon Park, enhance the avenue's natural 
atti'activeness. Besides good architectural 
features, many structures are enhanced by 
their exceptionally advantageous locations, as, 
for instance, the New Orleans Public Library. 
It was indeed a fortuitous occurrence that 
caused the library to be erected where St. 
Charles Avenue terminates at Lee Circle, thus 
giving it several splendid prospects. 

Present Movement in Behalf of Conserva- 
tion and Improvement. The cry to abolish by 
city ordinance the galleries and balconies which 
shelter the sidewalks in the business section is 
raised in the name of progress by those who 
would rob New Orleans of a distinctive charm 
and reconstruct her according to the stereo- 
typed pattern of some cities in the Middle 



West. Artists, architects, and travellers have 
praised these galleries. Edward Hungerford 
wrote of them: "The galleries of New Or- 
leans! They are perhaps the most typical 
of the outward expressions of a town whose 
personality is as distinct as that of Boston, 
Charleston, or San Francisco. . . .She (New Or- 
leans) well knows the commercial value of her 
personality. There are newer cities and 
showier within the radius of a single night's 
ride upon a fast train. But where one man 
comes to one of these, a dozen alight at the 
old French town by the bend of the yellow 
river." Concurrent with the movement for 
the retention of galleries is the still more 
recent agitation for conserving fine old 
trees, which having taken generations to 
attain maturity, cannot be replaced in a 
single day. 

The Association of Commerce under the 
guidance of a zealous and energetic president, 
and the Women's Clubs are actively further- 
ing the cause of the "City Beautiful." The 
campaign, earnestly waged in behalf of more 
harmonious architecture and more jDleasing 
streets, strenuously opposes towering sky- 
scrapers, and urges the abolition of violently 
assertive and glai'ing advertisements, unsightly 
shoijs in residential districts, and jarosaic 
foi-ests of poles with their burden of overhead 
wires. Street improvement has resulted in 
more spacious thoroughfares with ample pro- 
vision for neutral grounds and banquettes, al- 
lowing free circulation of air; better pave- 
ment and drainage; and more lavish use of 
greenery, performing both a utilitarian and 
an iBsthetic mission by absorbing carbonic 
gases and by giving out oxygen, by relieving 
monotony, and by speaking to the hearts of 
men the uplifting lang-uage of nature. The 
city government has manifested interest and 
a desire to cooperate in the movement. It 
supports a nursery to supply trees for civic 
adornment and it is gradually introducing a 
system of ornamental street lighting. 



I 



SECTION 3. PUBLIC PLEASURE GROUNDS. 



Need of Open Spaces in Cities. Public health of a community as the organs of 
parks and squares have been called the lungs breathing are to an individual. Disease is 
of great cities; they are as necessary to the fostered, human life shortened by the dusty, 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



149 



foul, ill-smelling atmosphere of congested dis- 
tricts. Since present economic conditions force 
people to live in such surroundings, it is the 
duty of the municipality to provide some 
means of alleviation. As many workers have 
neither time nor money to go long distances 
in search of fresh air, small parks distributed 
through every section of the city, supply this 
need. The trees and shrubs help to purify 
the atmosphere and afford a pleasant relief 
from the monotony of workshops or offices. 

The French Place. The French, particu- 
larly, make generous use of the small parks 
or- places usually a center around which im- 



taxes; New Orleans then set aside the tract as 
a public park. It remained unimproved for 
many years, until placed in the hands of a 
commission. The commissioners had to solve 
the problem of converting a swamp through 
which sluggish bayous wound their tortuous 
course, into a beautiful spot for rest and 
recreation. The swamps were drained, the 
underbrush cleared, and the muddy, stagnant 
bayous transformed into winding lagoons 
arched by artistic bridges. City Park now 
charms all nature-lovers. The wonderful trees 
of City Park, in particular the mighty live 
oaks, are noted; nearly every tree found in 



beside the live oaks, being the magnolia, pine, 
cedar, cypress, and camphor. In the spring, 
the huge wistaria vines laden with their 
gorgeous lavender blossoms, give an oriental 
touch to the landscape. 




portant buildings are grouped, or as parts of Louisiana is represented; the principal ones 

a system connected by splendid boulevards or 

driveways. When de la Tour planned New 

Orleans, he provided for an open square, the 

Place d'Armes, now Jackson Square, to serve 

the double purpose of a 

place of recreation for 

the public and, as the 

old name implies, a 

parade ground for the 

soldiers. 

The Park: Func- 
tion. The small parks 
and squares serve a 
purpose, but every city 
needs a large park, a 
place where people can 
seek rest and seclusion 
away from the noises 
and oppressive atmos- 
phere of the heart of 

the city. The park supplies a physical need 
for sunshine, fresh air, and quiet, by offering 
a means of wholesome relaxation and change; 
it stimulates mental activity; and through the 
beauties of nature ordered and arranged by the 
art of man, it fosters a love of the beautiful. 

New Orleans Parks: City Park and 
Audubon Park. A large portion of the area 
of City Park was the property of Louis Al- 
lard, which, being sold for mortgages, became 
the property of John McDonogh. The former 
owner, then in the decline of life, was. allowed 
to pass his remaining years at his old home, 
and was laid to rest beneath the stately oaks 
he had loved so well. McDonogh willed the 
plantation with the rest of his estate to the 
cities of Baltimore and New Orleans. Balti- 
more abandoned her claim in payment of 



DELGADO ART MUSEUM. 



The open-air rose gar- 
den is an object of at- 
tention and admiration, 
the year round. The 
Delgado Art Museum 
is in the center of the 
park, by the side of the 
little lake. As its name 
implies, it was the gift 
of Isaac Delgado. Very 
fittingly, the edifice was 
fashioned after a Greek 
temple and is itself a 
work of art. The ex- 
hibit, though still small, 
contains many pieces of value. Mr. Delgado 
made a donation to the exhibit; Mr. Morgan 
Whitney bequeathed to it his collection of 
jades, and Mrs. Chapman Hyams, hdr beau- 
tiful art collection valued at $250,000. A lovely 
prospect may be obtained of the museum, from 
the bridge that crosses Bayou St. John at the 
foot of Esplanade, through the long avenue of 
trees and palms that leads up to the museum. 
Audubon Park was formerly the Foucher 
plantation. Pierre Foucher obtained the upper 
part in 1793, and the lower part in 1825. This 
lower section is of peculiar historic interest. 
It was part of Etienne de Bore's plantation 
where sugar was first granulated in 1794, and 
where Charles Gayarre, Louisiana's eminent 
historian, passed his youth. The Foucher 
plantation was purchased by the city in 187lj 



150 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



and was known as Upper City Park; in 1887, 
it was renamed "Audubon Park," in honor 
of the great nauralist. A statue in the central 
portion of the park, now also serves to honor 
his memoiy. The park was unimproved up 
to the Cotton Centennial Exposition; hut the 
exposition directed attention to the park as 
an important and easily improved asset to the 
city. Its natural advantages have been well 
utilized. Extending from St. Charles Avenue 
to the Eiver, it has an unusual expanse. The 
broad green swards, clusters and avenues of 
palms and trees, and the far-famed ^Tove of 
magnificent, old live oaks have an unfailing 
{esthetic appeal. A large artificial lake is to 
be constructed and will add the final touch to 
the beautiful landscape of Audubon Park; 

Two Park Commissions administer the 
atfairs of each joark and see to the im- 
provements. 

Squares and Playgrounds. New Orleans is 
singularly fortunate in the number of small 
parks, or open squares and playgrounds dis- 
tributed throughout the city. There is Jackson 
Square, the old Place d'Armes, famous in his- 
tory and romance; Lafayette Square, between 
the City Hall and the new Post Office ; Coliseum 
Place, a favorite resort for children; Annuncia- 
tion Square, Washington Square, and many 
others serve as breathing spots for residents of 
crowded districts. The playgrounds, equipped 
with swings, see-saws, 
merry - go - rounds, and 
other apparatus that 
delight the hearts of 
children, are kept up in 
many parts of the city. 
Boys and girls not only 
reap the benefit of sun- 
shine, fresh air, and ex- 
ercise so necessary to 
build up the bone and 
tissue of growing limbs, 
but they are taught or- 
ganization, self-control, 
and responsibility by 
means of supervised 
games. New Orleans 
has more fresh- ai r 
space per-capita than 
any ' city in the world, 
for no city with equal 
population, and but one 



or two with greater population, include such 
a large area. 

Flora of New Orleans. So varied is the 
vegetation of this semi-tropical climate that 
an attempt to list its trees, shrubs, and 
flowers would be a heavy task. Here, the 
hardy plants of colder climes thrive side by 
side with the delicate products of warmer re- 
gions. Four times as many varieties of trees 
are found in Louisiana as in the State of Cali- 
fornia; the most conspicuous are the many 
varieties of oaks, the cypress, poplar, willow, 
pecan, and beautiful white-flowering magnolia. 
Among the shrubs that adorn the parks and 
gardens, are the crepe myrtle and oleander of 
several different colors, the sweet olive, the 
camellia, white, pink, and red, and an endless 
variety of jasmines. Roses of every descrip- 
tion and color, thrive; the hibiscus, rhododen- 
dron, hydrangea, and beautiful crimson poin- 
setta adorn the gardens. "Parterres" are 
filled with a profusion of annuals, mignonette, 
sweet alysum, marigold, petunia, phlox, pansies, 
portulaca, balsams. The wistaria, which in 
spring is massed with delicate and exquisite 
clusters of lavender blossoms, and the trailing 
rosa montana, whose delicate deep coral sprays 
burst into bloom in late summer, grace many 
a gallery, fence, and arbor. An eminent 
botanist has said, "Though perhaps the flora 
of Louisiana lacks the tropical beauty of 











''■ ■'■'■ ,> g£ V' 


M 


iiy;>ir.^5S5.'»i'i-"i^_-;<i'-T-- ^ " -"'- "■-" " '"^"f^V^^^SM 



OAKS IN AUDUBON PARK. 



—Courtesy of the Southern Pacific R. R. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



151 



Florida, or the stupendous grandeur of 
the forests of California, yet in the di- 
versity and variety of its plant life, it 
is second probably to no State in the 
Union. ' ' 

Birds. Few undomesticated animals, ex- 
cept the little squirrels that skip from branch 
to branch in the parks and venture audaciously 
near some human in their search for food, 
are to be found in the limits of the thickly 
settled portion of New Orleans. The bird life, 
however, is extraordinary and interesting in 
its variety. By far the greater number of 
birds are migratory, only visiting this vicinity 
at certain seasons of the year and nesting else- 
where. With the spring awakening come a 
great variety of warblers, and their delicate 
notes fill the air with music; the black cres- 
cent of the chimney swallow's outstretched 
wings, is seen darting rapidly here and there; 



orioles, wood thrushes, summer tanagers, and 
companions, famoiis for melody and plumage, 
come in monster troops. As the season ad- 
vances, these travellers wing their flight and 
are replaced by other species of bird life — 
thrushes, catbirds, redstarts, king-birds, gold- 
finches, and later the ruby-crowned-ringlets, 
the myrtle warblers, and the swamp and 
white-throated sparrow. Among the best 
known resident birds, are the thrush, sparrow, 
wood-pecker, redbird, blue jay, and the 
mockingbird, famed as a masterly songster. 
Many kinds of gulls, made bold by a keen 
appetite, venture up the Eiver and across the 
Lake in search of food, fearlessly disporting 
themselves about the big ships in the harbor. 
Several kinds of wild duck are resident and 
abundant at all times of the year, thus making 
hunting in the vicinity noted during the open 
season. 



SECTION 4. PAVING. 



Necessity for Paving. The question of 
pavements is one of great importance to a 
municipality. "With the growth of a city and 
the consequent increase in traffic, paving be- 
comes a necessity, for the continual hauling 
of heavy vehicles produces stifling dust in dry 
weather and impassable bogs during rains. 
And again, an unpaved street is both a 
hindrance to traffic, and a menace to health. 
It cannot be so easily or thoroughly cleaned 
as smooth pavement; even after sprinkling, the 
germ-laden dust soon rises with the passing 
of every vehicle; the drainage is less perfect 
than on a paved street; and, too often, it is an 
unsightly dumping ground for trash. Hence 
the needs of traffic, sanitary conditions, and the 
appearance of the city make paving necessary. 

Early Paving. The conditions of New Or- 
leans streets drained by open wooden gutters 
and bordered by wooden sidewalks was far from 
being sanitary. In 1817, in the face of much 
skepticism on account of the nature of the soil, 
the block on Gravier Street between Tchoupi- 
toulas and Magazine, was paved with cobble- 
stones. This was the first paving laid in New 
Orleans, and proving successful was gradually 
increased. In 1820, brick sidewalks replaced 



those of wood on the main thoroughfares, but" 
it was not until 1821 that any systematic at- 
tempt was made to pave the streets. As there is 
no stone near the city, material for paving had 
to be brought from a great distance. In order 
to obtain stone, the city offered a premium for 
rock ballast. This plan was quite effectual. 
The heavy Belgian block was laid in a pretty 
diagonal pattern on many streets. Although 
some of the Belgian block still remains, the 
heavy traffic and the insecure foundation have 
caused the patterns long since to disappear. St. 
Charles Street was paved in 1822 and work 
begun on several commercial streets in the 
old and new town; but the impulse toward 
municipal improvements soon subsided. Up 
to 1835, only two streets had been paved for 
any considerable length; elsewhere, vehicles 
sank up to the hub in mire after heavy rains. 
The first paving with square granite blocks 
was done in 1850. 

Paving at Present Time. New Orleans 
covers such an extensive area that, although 
there are several hundred miles of paved 
streets, there are many times that amount 
still unpaved. The kinds of pavement now 
being used in New Orleans are asphalt 



152 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



(pitch), rock asplialt, bitlmlitliic, mineral 
rubber, granitoid, wood block, and granite 
block. 

Asphalt. Asphalt is either obtained from 
natural lakes in Trinidad and Venezuela or is 
manufactured here from crude oil. The asphalt 
is not laid upon the soil. The model pavement 
of any kind must first have a six-inch con- 
crete base next to the soil to give solidity and 
strength. The heat of the sun somewhat softens 
the asphalt, and heavy wagons passing over it 
in this condition indent it; in these depressions, 
the water collects and rots, the pavement. To 
prevent the asphalt from slipping, a two-inch 
binder course of tar and crushed stone is laid 
over the concrete before the asphalt is applied. 
The tar sticks firmly to the concrete and the 
rough edges of the stone hold the asphalt in 
place. For the final layer, about 75 per cent of 
river and lake sand is mixed with 12 per cent 
asplialt, the remaining portion consisting of 
mineral dust, or powdered granite used as a 
"filler." These are thoroughly mixed and 
heated to 250°, so that the total amount of 
expansion may take place in the mass. It is 
laid hot upon the surface of the street, and, 
in cooling, contracts, holding firmly to the 
rough surface of the binder. Immediately 
after the mixture is 
spread upon the 
street, it is rolled 
with a five-ton roller 
to compress particles 
of sand together in a 
solid mass. Asphalt 
pavement can be laid 
about as cheaply in 
New Orleans as else- 
where, because the 
sand is easily pro- 
cured and the asi^halt 
is either made here 
or transported by 
water. 

Creosoted Wood 
Block. The best 
kind of pavement for 
heavy traffic is the 
creosoted wood block. 
It may be considered 
a home prodiict, for 
the blocks are made 
from the native long- 



leaf yellow pine. In the manufacture of the 
creosoted wood blocks, the pine is cut into 
blocks of uniform size. They are subjected to 
the vacuum process, which evaporates all sap 
and water, leaving the blocks porous. Creosote 
under heavy pressure is forced into the cylin- 
der containing the blocks, which thus become 
permeated with the creosote. This pavement 
costs about 30 per cent more than asphalt, as 
most of the creosote is imported, but the ex- 
pense, ultimately, is not greater, for it lasts 
longer and does not require as frequent repair. 
The creosoted wood block is noiseless, com- 
pared with pavements of less elastic material; 
it is sanitary, as creosote is a germicide, and 
it endures without injury enormous weight 
and great shocks, as the falling of heavy ma- 
chinery. Therefore the floors of foundries 
and olher manufacturing places, and the docks 
are being paved with creosoted wood blocks. 
The government machine shops in Balboa, 
Canal Zone, are paved with this material. 

Expenditure for Paving. The City pays 
one-fourth the cost of paving single streets 
and one-third the cost of double streets; the 
property holders pay the balance according to 
the frontage of their property along the street 
to be paved. On streets where car lines run, 




CfiEOSOTKD >\O0U BLOCK PAVEITENT. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



153 



the railway company paves between tlie 
tracks and eighteen inches on either side, or 
the entire street, according to their franchise 
for each section. Twenty per cent of the rev- 
enues of the city are devoted to public im- 
provements; out of that must come the main- 



tenance of the two parks, the erection of new 
school buildings, paving, and many other im- 
IDrovements. About $400,000 a year is avail- 
able for public improvement and that sum has 
been spent for the next fifteen years to come. 
Over 70 per cent of it was used for paving. 



SECTION 5. STREET LIGHTING. 



Necessity of Street Lighting. Efficient 
street lighting serves a threefold purpose: it 
beautifies a city, prevents accidents, and les- 
sens crime. Proper arrangement of lights sup- 
ported by ornamental brackets or poles, adds 
to the artistic appearance of streets by day as 
well as by night. Eobbers make iise of dark 
streets where they can hide unobserved while 
waiting to attack unsuspecting persons; car- 
riages, not having the powerful lights of the 
automobiles may come to grief, or pedestrians, 
groping their way in darkness may meet with 
some acicdent. 

Street Lighting in the Past. Governor 
Carondelet, responsible for much municipal im- 
provement, first established a system of street 
lighting in New Orleans (See Page 20). The 
use of oil lamps, suspended from wooden posts 
at the street intersections, continued well into 
the period of American rule. The light from 
these penetrated but a short distance, thus 
blocks where trees overhimg the street, were 
shrouded in darkness. The sidewalks were infe- 
rior and those persons called forth for business 
or jjleasure after nightfall, carried lanterns. 



Through the dim-lit streets, many a gay party 
made its way preceded by servants bearing 
swinging lights that daintily slippered feet 
might avoid foot-falls and mud-puddles. Gas 
street lamps were introduced about 1833 and 
continued in use for over half a century. Some 
of the old-time residents may still remember 
the lamp-lighter, who at dusk made his round; 
as the use of electricity gradually superseded 
gas, he became a less familiar figure and now 
is seen no more. 

Present City Lighting. The present system 
of lighting costs the city about $240,000 
annually. The cost of arc lights with under- 
ground connection, is greater than those with 
overhead wires; but the former are preferable 
because of the unsightliness of the overhead 
wires. Many cities require telephone, tele- 
graph, trolley, and lighting wires to be placed 
undergTound. In some parts of the city, the 
arc lights at street intersections, are being 
replaced by incandescent lights along the block. 
The effect is much more beautiful, and the 
light more evenly distributed, especially where 
large trees overhang the street. 



SECTION 6. STREET CLEANING. 



Need. The first requirement for a healthful 
and beautiful city, is cleanliness. One advan- 
tage of paved streets is that they are more 
easily cleaned; but unless cleaning is done fre- 
quently, a paved street will bcome as unsani- 
tary as any other. Dirt and refuse, breeding 
places for flies, rapidly collect, and germ-laden 
dust filters into houses and clothing and so 
endangers health unless the streets are kept 
in proper co^ditio^ by dailj;' cleaning and 



sprinkling. Unpaved streets seldom receive 
the necessary care; they are ovrlooked in the 
problem of street cleaning. 

Method. The City of New Orleans has 
an organized force of street cleaners. 
During the hours of least traffic, this white- 
clad army is at work. Huge brush rollers, 
almost half the width of the street, sweep 
the refuse near the curb; along the curb men 
are working in squads, who brush it into pile§ 



154 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOJC 



ready to be hauled away. Other white uni- three of these si^rinklers, one after the 

formed men follow on water-wagons which other, go over the same street in order 

spread the water in great fan-like sprays to lay well the dust and flush the street 

over the surface of the street. Usually along the curb. 



SECTION 7. CIVIC VIRTUES. 



Kindness and Cheerfulness. By nature a 
social being, man should not ignore his relation 
to society. These very relations give rise to 
certain obligations; one of the greatest of 
these is to consider the happiness of others. 
The cultivation of a kindly cheerful disposition 
ready with little deeds of good will, sym- 
pathy, and hospitality to disseminate sunshine 
through the world is a duty both to self and 
to one's fellow-men. The value of a kind and 
cheerfiil disposition cannot be over-estimated. 

Order and Cleanliness. Barbarous men do 
not know the use of water; the savages of Africa 
anoint their bodies with oil; the nomads of the 
desert rub their skin with sand; civilized 
people recognize the agreeable and salutary 
effects of the unstinted use of soap and water. 
Clean thoughts and clean language are even 
more obligatory than bodily cleanliness, be- 
cause vulgarity of speech, profane or obscene 
language, not only offend sensitive natures, 
but poison minds and hearts. Personal clean- 
liness should be accompanied by good order in 
one's surroundings: the condition of a home 
indicates the character of its inmates. People 
who take pride in the attractive appearance 
of their jjroperty, who allow no breeding place 
for rats, and roaches, who are too orderly to 
throw trash in public places, are a desirable 
element in any community. 

Honesty and Courage. Honesty in public 
and private life has many phases; it implies 
freedom from pretense, truthfulness of speech, 
being worthy of confidence, fidelity to trust, 
reliability in the performance of duty, sincerity, 
uprightness, integxity, and a high sense of 
justice in all human relations. Without such 
qualities in men and women, the whole fabric of 
law and order would be destroyed. The stead- 
fast adherence to the dictates of honor, requires 
more moral courage than physical bravery. 
"When boys and girls resist the inclination to 
ichfiat or tell, oun truths, they are laying a 



foundation of character, which will develop 
into right citizenship. This moral courage 
gives also the power to bear responsibility, 
which, as long as men live together, will fall 
to the lot of all. 

Self-Control, Will power is needed for the 
governance of man's lower inclinations. Intem- 
perance in any form, is a lack of self-control. 
Those who wish to preserve vigor of body and 
mind, to be useful to the community in which 
they live, and to render patriotic service to 
their country, must be temperate in the iTse 
of alcoholic beverages, and narcotic stimulants 
and drugs which, especially during the period 
of youth, retard physical and mental growth. 
Self-control implies moderation in the pursuit 
of pleasure, the lack of which leads to waste- 
fulness, poverty, and dissipation. Quiet con- 
duct in public places and repression during 
performances, are necessary for the conven- 
ience and pleasure of others. 

Industry. Thrift and industry go hand in 
hand. Idleness is far-reaching in its results; 
it is largely responsible for ignorance, pov- 
erty, and vice; it helps to fill prisons, refoi'ma- 
tories, and insane asylums, throwing a heavy 
burden upon the municipality or the state. On 
the other hand industry brings self-respect, 
contentment, comfort, and increase in skill. 
All are not called upon to work in the same 
way; some are more proficient in lines of 
mental activity, while others succeed better 
at manual labor. But as every one has the 
power to work in some manner, every one 
must labor. The history of the world teaches 
the reward of labor and the punishment of 
idleness. For a city to be truly great, it is 
necessary that the citizens be industrious. 

Respect for Authority. Authority is law- 
fully constituted power of control and direc- 
tion. Bespect for authority is the recognition 
of that i:)ower and rendering it obedience. In 
Chapter XV., it was seen how it was neces- 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



155 



sary in a city to have persons in authority, 
to have a government. Since that authority 
is necessary, it follows that it must be recog- 
nized and obeyed, else why have the author- 
ity? Lack of respect for authority, is a chief 
fault of the youth of the United States, re- 
sulting, perhaps, from a misunderstanding of 
freedom. The independence of a people can- 
not be maintained without authority, for, in 
its absence, unruly persons would disregard 
the rights of others in the attempt to satisfy 
their own desires. Respect for authority im- 
plies respect for all persons in whom authority 
is vested, whether it be parents or guar- 
dians, teachers, or officials of the city, state 
or nation. 

Courtesy. Courtesy is an elegance of 
manner resulting from consideration of the 
needs of others. It is "the virtue of civiliza- 
tion." Its exercise is an indication of good 
breeding and intelligence, and requii'es com- 
pliance with the accepted rules of social inter- 
course. Eeverence for old age without regard 
to station, dress, or other circumstance, and 
honor and respect for women, have become 
the essentials of the Southern ideal of cour- 
tesy, an ideal made world-famous by the past 
generations of Southern men. In the South- 
land men and boys do not speak to women 
without raising their hats; upon a woman en- 
tering an elevator, they remove their hats; in 
the street cars, the men stand that the women 
may have the seats; people say "please" 
when asking for something, and "thank you" 
on receiving it; the aged are assisted across 
throughfares, up and down stairs. A worthy 
example of this thoughtfulness is the kindly 
assistance the conductors on the cars extend 
to passengers entering or leaving the cars, 
especially in the case of the aged, whom they 
assist to ascend and alight from the cars. Such 
courtesy is only possible by the continual per- 
formance of courteous acts, resulting in the 
formation of a habit that gains the good-will of 
others for the possessor and adds grace and 
charm to his personality. 

Civic Interest. Something has been said of 
what other cities with great civic spirit have 
accomplished. Every good citizen takes an 
interest in the affairs of his municipality, votes. 



pays his taxes, and lends his siipport to all 
movements for progress and improvements. 
Children can manifest civic interest by caring 
for public property, in particular, by not 
mutilating the interior or exterior of public 
buildings, trees, or flowers, by caring for li- 
brary books, by being active workers in the 
cause of order and cleanliness. (Chapter XV.) 
The Beauty of Right Living. In this 
chapter, many kinds of material beauty have 
been considered. Now, we come to view 
beauty which is far inore than any of those; 
it is not a thing of matter like the beautiful 
flowers, nor is it generally short-lived, for it 
becomes in time the heritage of the gener- 
ations; it is the beauty of right living. The 
beauty of right living is the root of hap- 
piness; if a person possessed every kind of 
material beauty in the world, and, yet, did 
not live rightly, that person would not .be 
happy. And what is right living? Ordering 
one's life so as to do all the good possible, 
and to refrain from all the evil possible. For 
a boy or girl to live rightly, they must be 
like the most useful English verbs, active 
and passive; active in the commission of 
good deeds, but passive when it comes to 
the commission of bad ones. Right living- 
gains for a person the admiration and affec- 
tion of family and friends, and the apprecia- 
tion of a worthy community. To live rightly, a 
boy or girl must act well not only at home and 
in school, but in the public thoroughfares and 
places, amusement resorts, etc. It implies an 
adherence to those civic virtues we have 
considered, and to other virtues, that may be 
known to us to be necessary, and requires con- 
tinued effort for its attainment. The beauty 
of right living is the fruit of worthy deeds 
and is possible of attainment by all persons, 
for it is independent of wealth, great intel- 
ligence, and physical beauty, depending solely 
on the good will of the individual. 



TOPICS: Section 1, City Building; Section 2, Building of 
New Orleans; Section 3, Public Pleasure Grounds; Sec- 
tion 4, Paving; Section 5, Street Lighting; Section 6, 
Street Gleaning; Section 7, Civic Virtues. 

REFERENCES: European Cities at Work, F. C. Howe; 
Personality of American Cities, E. Hungerford; History 
and Conditions of New Orleans, Waring and Cable; Conv 
missioner of Public Property, City Hall. 



4 



SUPPLEMENT 



OUTLINE OF STATE GOVERNMENT. 



Bill of Rights. 

By tlie ' ' Bill of Rights, ' ' the citzen has what 
are known as his civil rights secured to him, 
such as life, liberty, etc. 

The "Bill of Rights' maintains that govern- 
ment originates with the j^eople, rests on their 
will, and is established for the good of all. ' ' To 
secure justice, preserve peace, and promote the 
interests and happin6ss of the people" is the 
only lawful end of government. 

The people of the State are secure in the 
enjoyment of life, liberty, property, freedom 
of religion and of speech. The courts are 
thrown open to all for the enjoyment of im- 
partially dispensed justice. Arms are allowed 
to be carried when not concealed. In trials, 



the accused is granted an impartial jury, the 
assistance of counsel, and the forced attend- 
ance of witnesses for his defense, and is con- 
fronted with his accusers and is informed of 
the nature and cause of the accusation brought 
against him. No person may be compelled to 
give evidence against himself. There may be 
no excessive bail nor fines, nor cruel and un- 
usual punishments. "The privilege of the writ 
of habeas corpus" can only be suspended in 
time of invasion or rebellion, or whenever else 
the public safety may demand it. The mili- 
tary is subordinate to the civil power. The 
listing of these rights does not deny or impair 
any other rights of the people not mentioned 
in the "Bill of Rights," as contained in the 
Constitution of Louisiana. 



DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT. 



Division. The powers of government are 
divided into three distinct departments, as 
follows: legislative, executive, and judicial. 
The members of one department may not hold 
office in another except in a few instances, 
which may be expressly provided for by law. 

A. Legislative Department. 

General Assembly. The legislative power is 
vested in a General Assembly, composed of a 
Senate and a House of Representatives. The 
General Assembly meets at noon in the capital 
city. Baton Rouge, on the second Monday in 
May of the even years, for a session of not 
more than sixty days. Members of the Gen- 
eral Assembly are privileged from arrest 
during their attendance at the sessions and in 
going to and from the same, except in cases 
of treason, felony, or breach of the peace. 
They are paid five dollars per day during at- 
tendance, and are allowed five cents per mile 
going to and returning from the capital. Each 
house has to keep a journal of its proceed- 
ings, which is preserved in the office of the 



Secretary of State. A quoi'um consists of not 
less than a majority of each house. Neither 
house may adjourn for more than three days 
nor to any place, without the consent of the 
other. No member may during his term of 
office nor for one year thereaftef, be ap- 
pointed or elected to any civil office of profit 
under the State, which may have been created 
or the income from which may have been in- 
creased, during the time he was a member of 
the General Assembly. The House of Repre- 
sentatives has the sole power of impeachment 
and the Senate of trying cases of impeach- 
ment. No person may be convicted without a 
two-thirds vote of the Senators present. When 
the Governor of the State is on trial, the 
Chief Justice or the senior Associate Justice 
of the Supreme Court presides over the Senate. 
How a Bill Becomes a Law. A law may 
embrace but one subject, which must be ex- 
pressed in the title. In order for a bill to be- 
come a law, it must be read on three different 
occasions in each house and reported by a 
committee and, in its final passage, receive the 



n. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



affirmative vote of a majority of the members 
elected to the house. When a bill has been 
passed by both houses and returned to the 
house in which it originated, it is signed by 
the presiding officer in open house and imme- 
diately taken by the clerk to the other house, 
whose presiding officer must sign it in like 
manner. It is then sent to the Governor to 
be signed. Should the Governor refuse to 
sign it, he must return it with his objections, 
to the house in which it was originated. It 
may then be passed over the Governor's veto 
by a two-thirds vote of all the members of 
both houses. Should the Governor keep a 
bill longer than five days without signing it, 
it would become a law just as though he had 
signed it, unless the General Assembly ad- 
journed sine die during the interval. A bill 
does not become a law until it be promul- 
gated, that is, until ten days after publication 
in the State Journal, except it be a general 
appropriation act, or act appropriating money 
for the expenses of the General Assembly. A 
bill may not be again proposed in the house 
in which it was rejected without the consent 
of the majority of that house. 

House of Representatives. Representation 
is based on population, but each parish, and 
each ward of the city of New Orleans must 
have at least one representative; representa- 
tion is directed to be reapportioned after each 
United States census. The number of repre- 
sentatives may not exceed 120. The necessary 
qualifications of a representative are: (1) he 
must be an elector; (2) a resident of the State 
for five years; (3) for two years preceding his 
election, an actual resident of the parish or 
ward from which he is elected. A member's 
seat becomes vacant on his changing his resi- 
dence from the parish or ward from which he 
was elected. The term of offi'ce is four years. 
The House of Representatives judges of the 
qualifications, elections, and returns of its own 
members, chooses its own officers, determines 
the rules of the proceedings, and may punish 
its members for disorderly conduct or con- 
tempt and, with the concurrence of two-thirds 
of all its members elected, expel a member. It 
may punish also any other person guilty of 
disrespect, or disorderly, or contemptuous be- 
havior during the session; such imprisonment 
may not exceed ten days for each offense. All 
bills for raising revenue or appropriating 



money must originate in the House of Repre- 
sentatives, but the Senate may propose or 
concur in amendments, as in other bills. The 
expenses of the house may not exceed $120 
per day. There is a clerk of the house and 
such other assistants as may be necessary. 

Senate. Whenever the representation in 
the House of Representativs be apportioned, 
the State is divided into Senatorial districts; 
no parish, except that of Orleans, may be 
divided in the formation of such districts; 
when a new parish is made, it is attached to 
the senatorial district from which most of its 
territory was taken. There may not be more 
than forty-one senators nor less than thirty- 
six, and they are apportioned among the dif- 
ferent districts according' to the total popula- 
tion contained in the several districts. A sen- 
ator must be at least twenty-five years of age 
and have the other qualifications required of 
a representative. The Senate, like the House 
of Representatives, judges of the qualifica- 
tions, elections, and returns of its members, 
chooses its own officers, except the President 
of the Senate, determines the rules of its pro- 
ceedings, and punishes its members for dis- 
orderly conduct and contempt, and, with the 
concurrence of two-thirds of all the members 
elected, may expel a member. It may punish 
any other person guilty of disrespect, dis- 
orderly or contemptuous behavior during the 
session; such imprisonment may not exceed 
ten days for each offense. The expenses of 
the Senate may not exceed $100 per day; there 
is a Secretary of the Senate and such other 
assistants as may be necessary. 

Limitations of Legislative Power. No 
money may be drawn from the treasury ex- 
cept as appropriated by law, nor may any 
such appropriation be for longer than two 
years. The General Assembly has no power 
to contract any debts, except for the purpose 
of repelling invasion or suppressing insurrec- 
tion. There are numerous restrictions on the 
passing of local or special laws; for instance, 
no law may be passed for the opening and 
conducting of elections, or fixing, or changing 
the place of voting, etc. The price of manual 
labor may not be fixed by law. No member 
may vote on a bill in which he has any per- 
sonal or private interest. No appropriations 
may be made for any church, or minister, or 
private charitable institution. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



m. 



B. Executive Department. 

Members. The members of the executive de- 
partment are the Governor, Lieutenant-Gover- 
nor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Auditor. 

Election and Term. The officers of this de- 
partment are elected at the general State elec- 
tion of representatives, for a term of four years. 
In case of the absence, resignation, death, or 
removal from office of the Governor, the succes- 
sion devolves first upon the Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor, then upon the President pro tempore of 
the Senate. Li case of the absence, resignation, 
death, or removal from office of any of the other 
officers of the department, the Governor fills the 
vacancy with the advice and consent of the 
Senate. The Secretary of State has the right to 
appoint an Assistant Secretary of State. 

Eligibility. Any qualified elector is eligible 
for these offices, except those of Governor and 
Lieutenant-Governor; for these positions he 
must be at least thirty years of age, ten years a 
citizen of the United States, and a resident of 
the State for ten years preceding his election to 
office. No person holding office under the United 
States government at the time of or within six 
months immediately preceding the election, may 
be elected to these offices. The Governor and 
Treasurer may not succeed themselves in office, 
Init. become eligible again at the expiration of 
one or more tei*ms after they have served. 

Salaries. The Governor's salary is $5,000 
until 1916, when it will be $7,500 per year. The 
Lieutenant-Governor receives $1,500 per year. 
The Secretary of State and the Auditor receive 
$5,000 and the Treasurer $4,000 per year. 

Duties and Powers of the Grovemor. The 
Governor enters into office on the third Monday 
in May. The Governor has the power to grant 
reprieves for offenses against the State, except 
in eases of impeachment or treason; he may, on 
the recommendation of the Board of Pardons, 
grant pardons, commute sentences, and remit 
fines and forfeitures. The Governor, with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, appoints all 
officers whose ielection is not provided for by the 
Constitution or by special act of the General 
Assembly. He is commander-in-chief of the 
militia of the State, except when they are in 
actual service of the United States. He must 
keep the General Assembly informed as to the 
affairs of the State and make such recommenda- 
tions for its consideration as he may deem ex- 
pedient. It is his duty to see that the laws are 



faithfully enforced and he may, on extraordinary 
occasions, convene the General Assembly, pro- 
vided it be for a session of not more than thirty 
days. Before a bill may become a law, it must 
be signed by the Governor; should he veto it, 
he must return it with his objections to the 
house in which it was originated; it may then, 
by a two-thirds vote of all the members of both 
houses, be passed over his veto. Should the Gov- 
ernor keep a bill longer than five days before 
signing it, it becomes a law just as though he 
had signed it, unless the General Assembly had 
adjourned sine die during the interval. The 
Governor may veto any distinct item of a bill 
making appropriations for money and the part 
vetoed may become a law only by an affirmative 
vote of two-thirds of all the members of both 
houses. 

Duties and Powers of Lieutenant-Governor. 
The Lieutenant-Governor enters into office with 
the Governor. He is ex-officio president of the 
Senate. When discharging the duties of the 
Governor, he receives the same compensation 
as that to which the Governor would have been 
entitled had he remained in office. He is a mem- 
ber of the Board of Pardons. 

Commissions. All commissions are in the 
name and by the authority of the State of Lou- 
isiana. They must be sealed with the seal of 
the State,^ signed by the Governor, and coun- 
tersigned by the Secretary of State. 



'The seal of the State of Louisiana, as it has existed 
up to April 30, 1902, had no absolute authority of record 
for its existence. 

The first seal was chosen, supposedly, by Governor 
Claiborne, and was supposed to represent a pelican with 
a nest full of young. There was no change in this seal 
and no enactment providing for any seal until 1864. When 
Henry W. Allen became Governor of the Confederate por- 
tion of the State, and Michael Hahn of the Federal jjor- 
tion, each had his seal; both seals were a pelican — one 
with the head on the left and the other with the head on 
the right; one with a nest full of young and the other 
with four young. Up to that time, the inscription on the 
seal was "Justice, Union and Confidence"; subsequently, 
without any apparent authority, the inscription upon the 
seal was changed to ' ' Union, Justice and Confidence. ' ' 

In order to establish uniformity in the State seal and 
in its use among various departments of the government, 
on April 30, 1902, Governor Heard, acting under authority 
of Section 3471 of the Revised Statutes, directed the Sec- 
retary of State to use a seal, the description of which is 
given below, and this is the first directing order that has 
come from the chief magistrate and that stands of record 
legitimizing the seal for the State: 

' ' A pelican, with its head turned to the left, in a nest 
with three young; the pelican, following tradition, in the 
act of tearing its breast to feed its young; around the edge 
of the seal to be inscribed 'State of Louisiana.' Over the 
head of the pelican to be inscribed 'Union, Justice and'; 
under the nest of the pelican to be inscribed 'Confi- 
dence.' " (W. O. Hart.) 



tv. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



C. Judicial Department. 

Courts. The judicial power of the State is 
vested in a Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, 
District Courts, City Courts, Juvenile Courts, 
Justices of the Peace, and other inferior courts. 

1. Supreme Court. 

Jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has appel- 
late aud original jurisdiction. It has original 
jurisdiction, that is, the right to try eases before 
any other court, in determining questions affect- 
ing its own jurisdiction and in matters touching 
professional misconduct of members of the bar. 
It has control and general supervision of all in- 
ferior courts. 

Members. This court is composed of one Chief 
Justice and four Associate Justices, a majority 
of whom constitutes a quorum. The necessary 
ctualifications of a member of this court are: 
(1) to be a citizen of the United States and of 
the State; (2) to be thirty -five years of age; 
(3) to be learned in the law; (4) to have prac- 
ticed law in the State for ten years preceding 
his election or appointment. They are elected 
for a term of twelve years. In the event of the 
death, resignation, or removal from office of a 
Justice, the vacancy is filled by the selection by 
the court of a Judge of one of the Courts of 
Appeal from a different Supreme Court District 
than that in which the vacancy occurred; at the 
next congressional election it is filled by elec- 
tion for a full term of twelve years. On reaching 
the age of seventj^-five years and after a con- 
tinued service of fifteen years, a Justice may 
retire on full pay. The office of Chief Justice is 
filled by the Associate Justice who has served 
the longest time. 

Districts. There are four Supreme Court 
Districts. The first district is composed of 
the Parishes of Orleans, St. John the Baptist, 
St. Charles, Jefferson, St. Bernard, and 
Plaquemines; from this district two Justices 
are elected. The remainder of the State is 
similarly divided; the northern parishes form 
the second district; the southwestern ones, the 
third district; and the remaining southern 
parishes, the fourth district. 

Sessions. The Supreme Court holds an an- 
nual session in the city of New Orleans, be- 
ginning not later than the first Monday in 
November and ending not sooner than June 
.30th in each year. All processes are con- 
ducted in the name of the State of "Louisiana." 



2. Court of Appeals. 

Jurisdiction. The Courts of Appeals have 
appellate jurisdiction upon the law and the 
facts in all civil and probate eases in which 
the Civil District Court for the Parish of Or- 
leans and the District Courts throughout the 
State, have exclusive original jurisdiction and 
of which the Supreme Court has no jurisdic- 
tion, when the matter in dispute does not ex- 
ceed $2,000. 

Judges. There are three judges in each 
Court of Appeals. They must be citizens of the 
United States, qualified electors of the State, 
learned in the law, have practiced law in 
the State for six years, and have been actual 
residents for two years preceding election 
or api^ointment, of the district from which 
they are elected or appointed. They serve 
eight years at a salary of $4,000 per year, 
except in the Parish of Orleans, where they 
receive $5,000. Vacancies are filled by the 
Governor with the advice and consent of the 
Senate. 

Circuits. The State is divided into two cir- 
cuits exclusive of the parishes whose appeals 
are returnable to the Court of Appeal for the 
Parish of Orleans. Each circuit is divided into 
three districts. 

Sessions. The places for holding sessions of 
the Court of Appeals are partly designated by 
the Greneral Assembly and partly by the Court 
of Appeal. The sessions last for a period of ten 
months, beginning on the first Monday of Sep- 
tember of each year and ending on the last day 
of June of the following year. 

3. District Courts. 

Jurisdiction. The District Courts except in 
the Parish of Orleans have original jurisdiction 
in all civil matters where the amount in disiDute 
exceeds fifty dollars and in cases where the title 
to real estate is involved, or to office or other 
public positions, or civil or political rights. They 
have unlimited and exclusive jurisdiction in all 
criminal cases with a few exceptions, in all 
probate and succession matters, and in cases 
where the State, a parish, mimicipality, or other 
political corporation is a party defendant. 

Number. The State may be divided into not 
less than twenty, nor more than thirty-two 
judicial districts; there are at present thirty dis- 
tricts exclusive of the Parish of Orleans, which 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



V. 



has two District Courts, the Civil District Court 
and Criminal District Court. 

Judges. There is usually one judge in each 
judicial district. In the case of large districts, 
however, there are two, as for instance, in the 
First District, composed of the Parish of Caddo. 

In the Parish of Orleans there are five judges 
of the Civil District Court and two of the Crim- 
inal District Court. These judges are elected 
by the qualified voters of the district ; they must 
be residents of their district for at least two 
years preceding their election, be learned in the 
law, and have practiced law for five years. 
Their term of office is four years, except in the 
Parish of Orleans, in which it is two years; 
their salary is $3,000 per year, except in the 
Parish of Orleans, in which it is $4,000. Vacan- 
cies, when the unexpired term is less than a 
year, are filled by the Grovernor with the advice 
and consent of the Senate ; where the unexpired 
term is a year or more, the vacancy must be 
filled by a special election called by the Gov- 
ernor within sixty days after the occurrence of 
the vacancy. The district judges have power 
to issue the writ of habeas corpus at the instance 
of any person in actual custody in their respec- 
tive district. 

Jury. Cases in which the punishment may 
not be at hard labor, are tried by the judges 
without a jury; cases in which the punishment 
may be at hard labor, must be tried by a jury 
of five, all of whom must concur to render a 
verdict; cases in which the punishment may be 
capital, must be tried by a jury of twelve, all 
of whom must concur to render a verdict. There 
are juries for trying civil and criminal cases. 
The Grrand Jury, composed of twelve members, 
is impanelled in each parish twice a year; nine 
must agree to find an indictment. 

Sessions. Continuous sessions are held during 
ten months of the year. In districts com- 
posed of more than one parish, the judge sits 
alternately in each parish as the public business 
may require. Judgments must be signed after 
three days .from their being given and are to be 
enforced ten days after the signing. 

4. Juvenile Courts. 

Courts. In the parishes, the district courts 
serve when necessary as Juvenile Courts, but in 
New Orleans there is a special Juvenile Court. 

Purpose. Juvenile Courts are established 



for the trial of all children seventeen years of 
age and under, charged as "neglected" or "de- 
linquent," and all persons guilty of the violation 
of laws for the protection of the physical, moral, 
or mental well-being of children, not punishable 
by death or hard labor. Cases of desertion or 
non-support of children, by either parent, also 
belong to this court. 

Terms "Neglected" and "Delinquent." By 
"neglected" child is meant any child seventeen 
years of age or under, foimd destitute, or with- 
out proper guardianship, or whose home because 
of neglect, cruelty, depravity, or indigence of 
parents or guardians, is an unfit place for a 
child; or having one parent undergoing punish- 
ment for crime, or found wandering about the 
streets at night without being on any lawful 
business. By "delinquent" child is meant any 
child seventeen years of age or under, found 
begging or receiving alms, singing, or playing 
a musical instrument in any street or public 
place, for alms; or found living in places of bad 
repute, visiting any saloon, pool-room, etc., at- 
tempting to jump on moving trains or street 
cars for the purpose of stealing a ride ; or found 
to be incorrigible or habitually using vile, 
obscene, or indecent language, or guilty of im- 
moral conduct in public places or around school- 
houses, or growing up in idleness or crime, or 
running away from home or the State institu- 
tion where he may be kept, or violating any 
law of the State, or ordinance of any village, 
town, city, or parish of the State. 

Officers. There are the judge of the court 
and probationary officers. These probationary 
officers, discreet persons of either sex, are ap- 
pointed by the court. Tha probation officers 
must attend court when cases assigned them 
are being heard; they have to investigate such 
cases and take charge of the child before or 
after the trial, according to the court's order; 
they have the power and authority of sheriffs 
to make arrests and perform other duties of 
their office. 

5. Sheriffs and Coroners. 

Sheriffs. At the general election, each parish, 
except that of Orleans, must elect a sheriff for 
four years. He must within thirty days of his 
election furnish bond. The sheriff' has to see 
to the "keeping of prisoners, conveying con- 
victs, insane persons, juveniles, lepers, and other 



VI. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



persons committed to any instituion of the 
State; and must see to the service of ijrocess 
from another parish, and service of process or 
the performance of any duty within the limits 
of his own parish." For this, he is paid $500 a 
year for each representative the parish may 
have in the House of Representatives. He is 
also tax collector and receives five per cent of 
all sums collected. Vacancies in which a year 
or more of the term remains, are filled by the 
Governor calling a special election within sixty 
days of the occurrence of the vacancy. If the 
time ])e less than a year, the Grovernor must 
appoint some one for the remainder of the term. 
Coroners. A coroner is elected in each parish 
at the general election, for four years. It is the 
duty of the coroner to inquire into the causes 
of violent deaths occurring in his parish. The 
coroner takes the place of the sheriff when the 
office becomes vacant until it shall be filled, and 
when the sheriff is a party interested; he may 
not, however, perform the duties of tax collector. 
Coroners must be regularly licensed physicians. 

6. Attorney-General. 

Term. There is an attorney for the State, 
elected by the qualified voters of the State for 
a term of four years. 

Qualifications. The attorney-general must 
be learned in the law and must have actually 
resided and practiced law as a licensed attorney 
in the State for five years preceding his election. 

Salary. The attorney-general is paid -$5,000 
a year. 

Powers and Duties. The attornev-general 



appoints two assistant attorneys-general at 
salaries, respectively, of $4,000 and $3,500 per 
year. It is the duty of the attorney-general to 
attend to all such legal matters as the State 
may have an interest in or be a party to, and to 
prosecute and defend all suits wherein the 
State may be a party or have an interest. 

7. District Attorneys. 

Each judicial district must elect a district 
attorney at each presidential election for a 
four-year term. He receives $1,000 a year 
and fees. He must be a resident of the district 
and a licensed attorney. The Governor fills 
vacancies in which the time is less than a year; 
if it be a year or more, a special election must 
be called within sixty days. 

8. Justices of the Peace and Constables. 

Justices of the Peace. Each parish must 
elect justices of the peace for a term of four 
years. Justices of the peace have exclusive 
original jurisdiction in all civil matters, when 
the disputed amount is not more than $50, and 
original jurisdiction with the District Court 
when the amount does not exceed $100. Tliey 
also have jurisdiction in minor criminal cases. 
They are paid a salary fixed by the police jury 
of the iDarish. 

Constables. Each court of the justice of the 
peace has a constable elected for four years. He 
is paid a salary by the police jury of the parish. 
The duties of the constable are similar to those 
of the sheriff; he must enforce the decisions of 
the court. 



SOME GENERAL PROVISIONS. 



Treason. Levying war against the State, or 
adhering to its enemies, giving them aid and 
comfort, constitutes treason against the State. 

Official Language. English is the official 
longuo, but in the City of New Orleans, the Gen- 
eral Assembly provides for the publication of 
judicial advertisements in French. 

Lotteries. The State of Louisiana prohibits 
lotteries and the sale of lotterv tickets. 



Gambling. The constitution de- 
clares gambling to be a vice and that 
the General Assembly must pass laws to 
suppress it. 

Convicts. The State may employ convicts 
on pulilic v\'orks such as roads, farms, 'etc., Init 
they must be under the suiiorvision of State 
officers. They may not be hired out to in- 
dividuals or corporations. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



VIT. 



THE PARISH AS A UNIT OF GOVERNMENT. 



The Parish, a Public Corporate Body. The 

State of Louisiana is divided into parishes, as 
other States are divided into counties, for tlie 
purpose of local government. The French called 
these divisons of the territory "Paroisses," 
hence their being called parishes instead of 
counties. The parish is a public corporate body 
that may own and sell property, sue and be 
sued, exercise power of taxation for purposes of 
local government, local improvement, paying off 
debts, and supporting schools. But the parish 
is made subordinate to the State by the con- 
stitution, by which it was m^de. 

Changing Parish Lines. Parish lines may 
be changed only on the affirmative vote of two- 
thirds of the qualified electors of the parishes 
affected by the law. For instance, when in 1912 
the Parish of Calcasieu was divided into the 
four parishes of Calcasieu, Allen, Jefferson 
Davis, and Beauregard, it was necesasry for 
two-thirds of the qualified electors of Calcasieu 
to vote in favor of the division, otherwise it 
could not have been made. When such a division 
takes place, the property and assets, debts and 
liabilities of the former parish, are proportioned 
among its divisions. Similarly, for merging two 
or more parishes, it is necessary to have the con- 
sent of a majority of the qualified voters. 

Parish Subdivisions. Parishes are sub- 
divided into Avards. When a parish is formed, 
the General Assembly decides the number of 
wards into which it may be divided, and the 
Police Jury arranges the limits of each ward. 

Issuance of Bonds. Parishes may issue bonds 
for purposes of public improvement when 
authorized by the vote of a majority of the tax- 
payers; such bonds m'ay not run for more than 
forty years nor bear more than five per cent 
interest, nor be sold for less than par. The total 
bond issue of a parish may not exceed ten per 
cent of the assessed valuation of the property 
within its limits. Taxes for the payment of in- 
terest and principal of such debts may not be 
higher than "ten mills on the dollar of assessed 
valuation of the property" in such parish. 
There is also what is known as the acreage tax 
for the purpose of raising money to diixin dis- 
tricts; it may not be inq^osed for more than 
forty years. The amount of the bonds issued 



for this purpose may never exceed in princi]ial 
and interest the total amount to be raised by 
the acreage tax during the period it is to be im- 
posed, and such bonds may not bear more than 
five per cent interest, nor be sold for less than 
par. 

Police Jury. The electors in each ward of a 
parish elect a member of the Police Juiy of the 
Parish. The Police Jury conducts the affairs 
of the parish ; this jury may be said to be to the 
parish what the city council is to the city. 

Other Parochial Officers. The sheriff, cor- 
oner, clerk of court, assessors, justice of the 
peace, constable, board of health, board of school 
directors, and superintendent of schools, are the 
other officials who assist in managing the 
affairs of the parish. 

Seat of Parish Government. In every parish 
there is what is known as the parish seat, in 
other States the county seat, where is located 
the courthouse and jail; where the Police 
Jury meets and the other officials, such as 
the sheritf, clerk of court, assessors, and 
superintendent of schools, have their offices. 
This forms a nucleus for a settlement, and 
in most cases, prosperous towns have thus 
been developed. 

Commission Government. In 1914, the Legis- 
lature passed a bill allowing the parishes to 
change their government from that by the 
police jury to the commission form. According 
to this plan, three commissioners are elected at 
large; these commissioners replace the police 
jury, board of health, and assessors; they have 
charge of i^ublic buildings, sanitation, care of 
paupers, construction of roads, bridges, fences; 
the finances and assessment of the parish are 
under their control, as are all parish employees. 
The three characteristics of commission govern- 
ment, recall, initiative, and referendum, are pro- 
vided for; by the recall, the electors may remove 
a commissioner from office and replace him; by 
the initiative, the electors may have ordinances 
and regulations passed; and by the referendum, 
the electors may compel the commissioners to 
submit a measure to the vote of the electors 
before putting it in force. This plan of gov- 
ernment abolishes the division of a parish iiilo 
wards. 



VIII. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



THE TOWN AS A UNIT OF GOVERNMENT. 



Municipal Corporations. Wlien a hamlet or 
unincorporated village has a population of at 
least 250, on two-thirds of the electors petition- 
ing the Governor to declare it an incorporated 
village, and he having verified the facts given in 
the petition, he must declare it incorporated as 

the village of , and appoint the first 

officials, hut, thereafter, they are elected. The 
Governor must declare a village to he a town 
whenever the local authorities inform him that 
its population is or exceeds 1,000, or a city when 
the population is or exceeds .5,000. 

Officials. In municipalities having a popu- 
lation of less than 200,000, the government is 
foiiued by the State and is of an aldermanic 
character; the governing body is composed of 
a mayor, aldermen, marshal, tax collector, and 
street commissioner. The number of aldermen 
varies according to whether the municipality is 
a village, in which case there are three; a town, 



five ; or a city, not less than five nor more than 
nine. The voters elect the mayor, aldermen, and 
marshal; the aldermen appoint the other officials. 
Powers and Duties of Municipal Officials. 
The management of the municipality devolves 
upon the mayor and aldermen, who enact ordi- 
nances for its governance, and improvement, 
levy and collect taxes. In towns, their power 
exceeds that in villages; in towns, they may 
open and maintain hospitals, have a system of 
street lighting, fire department, etc. "With an 
increase in size, additional powers are obtained. 
The mayor is chief executive and, in munici- 
palities of a population less than 5,000, judge 
in a court for cases of violations of the town 
ordinances. The marshal is the constable and 
chief of police. The tax collector collects the 
taxes. The street commissioner has to see that 
all alleys, streets, and roads are kept in good 
condition. 



TAXATION. 



Purpose. Taxes are levied for the support 
of the State Government and its institutions, 
the education of the children, preservation of 
public health, payment of interest and principal 
of the public debt, suppression of insurrection, 
repelling invasion, or defense of the State in 
time of war, providing pensions for indigent 
Confederate soldiers and sailors and their 
widows, establishing markers or monuments 
commemorative of the services of Louisiana 
soldiers on such fields, maintenance of a me- 
morial hall in New Orleans for the collection 
and preservation of relics and memorials of the 
late Civil War, and for levee purposes. 

Kinds of Taxes. (1) The poll tax is an an- 
nual tax of one dollar per year payable by all 
male inhabitants betweeij the age of twenty-one 
and sixty years; this tax must be paid in order 
to vote, and property holders may be forced to 
pay it; the funds collected by this measure are 
given to the support of the public schools in 
the parish within which the collection is made. 
(2) The property tax is a tax of six mills on 
the dollar of assessed valuation of the property. 



Property may not be assessed above its vah;e. 
This tax forms the State's principal source of 
revenue. (.3) The license tax is a tax on trades, 
professions, vocations, and callings. (4) The 
inheritance tax is a tax on inheritances, legacies, 
and donations; no inheritance or donation of 
less than $10,000 to ancestors or descendants 
may be taxed, and when over that amount may 
not be taxed for more than three per cent; col- 
lateral inheritance or donation to strangers may 
not be taxed for more than ten per cent; if the 
donation be to an educational, charitable, or 
religious institution, it is exempt from this 
tax. (5) The levee tax is a tax of not more 
than one mill on the dollar of assessed valu- 
ation of property, for the maintenance of the 
levee system in the Levee District in which 
the tax is levied. 

Exemptions. Clerks, laborers, clergymen, 
school teachers, persons engaged in mechanical, 
agTieultural, and horticultural pursuits, and 
manufacturers, except those of distilled alco- 
holic or malt liquors, tobacco, cigars, and cotton 
seed oil, are exempt from paying a license tax. 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 



IX. 



No public property, nor property used for re- 
ligious, educational, or charitable purposes, is 
taxed; neither is household furniture valued at 
$500, or less. The constitution grants exemp- 
tion from taxation to many corporations, bonds, 
etc., under certain conditions. See Constitu- 
tion of 1913, Article 230. 

Sheriff's Sales. If taxes are not paid before 
the expiration of the year in which they fall 
due, the collector shall, after giving due notice 
to the delinquent, advertise for sale the prop- 
erty on which the taxes are due, and on the day 
of sale shall sell such part of the property as 
the debtor shall point out, for the amount of 
the taxes, interest, and costs; if the tax debtor 
fails to point out sufficient property, the tax 
collector shall sell the least quantity of the 
property which any one will purchase for the 



taxes, interest, and costs. The owner may re- 
deem the property within the space of one year 
by paying the price given, including costs, and 
twenty per cent thereon. 

State Board of Appraisers. The Board of 
Appraisers was created by the State for the 
purpose of assessing the property belonging to 
corporations, associations, and individuals, em- 
ployed in railway, telegTaph, telephone, sleeping 
car and express business throughout the State 
of Louisiana. This Board is composed of the 
Auditor and other members, corresponding in 
number to the Congressional Districts of the 
State, elected by the Governor, Lieutenant-Grov- 
ernor. Treasurer, Attorney-General, and Secre- 
tary of State, for a term of four years. The Gen- 
eral Assembly fixes the compensation of the 
Board. 



VARIOUS STATE BOARDS. 



Boards in General. The State has created 
several boards or commissions for the manage- 
ment of some special affairs of the State, and 
these boards form an important part of the 
machinery of the State government. 

Board of Public Education. This Board is 
composed of the Governor, Attorney-General, 
State Superintendent of Education, and one 
member from each Congressional District, ap- 
pointed by the Governor. The Board of Educa- 
tion has to appoint the chairman of- the State 
committee for examining teachers; elects a State 
Institute Conductor, who has general charge of 
summer schools and institutes; prescribes stand- 
ards for approved high schools, and makes ap- 
propriation to each high school of from $400 to 
$500 a year; makes recommendations to the 
parish board, gives special aid to departments 
of agriculture and home economics of the public 
schools, and provides courses of study for the 
different public schools. 

Louisiana State Board of Agriculture and 
Immigration. This Board consists of a member 
from each Congressional District, appointed by 
the Governor with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, from men engaged in the leading agri- 
cultural interests of the State; these members 
hold office for six years, or until their successors 
are appointed. The Governor, Commissioner 



of Agriculture and Immigration, President of 
the Louisiana State University and Agricul- 
tural and Mechanical College, the Vice-Presi- 
dent of the Board of Supervisors of the same 
institution, and the Director of the State experi- 
mental stations, are ex-officio members of this 
Board. The members of this Board receive no 
compensation, only their expenses when attend- 
ing meetings. This Board has control and direc- 
tion of all State agricultural organizations and 
State Farmers' Institutes, and adopts measm-es 
to secure proper immigration. It encourages 
State, district, and parish fairs and local agri-'- 
cultural organizations; maintains effective con- 
trol of the manufacture and sale in this State 
of fertilizers and Paris Green, and suppresses 
adulteration and fraud therein. It has to per- 
form other duties when assigned by the General 
Assembly. 

Board of Charities and Corrections. Six 
members, appointed by the Governor for six 
years, form this board, of which the Governor 
is ex-officio chairman. They receive no com- 
pensation, but the secretary, whom they ap- 
point, receives a salary fixed by the General 
Assembly. The board does not possess any 
administrative or executive powers, merely 
visitorial. It is their duty to visit all chari- 
table, correctional, or reformatory institutions. 



X. 



The new ORLEANS book: 



whether pulilie or jirivate, and make au auuual 
report ou their condition to the Governor and 
(Jeneral Assembly. 

Board of Liquidation of the State Debt. The 
State's bonded debt was $11,108,300 on January 
1, 1914. The State has created a special board 
to assume control of this debt, pay oft" the in- 
terest and principal. One and three-twentieths 
mills, out of the six-mill tax levied by tlie State, 
are set aside for this purpose. 

Board of Commissioners of the Port of New 
Orleans. The Governor appoints the members 
of this board, tive in number, has the power to 
remove them and fill all vacancies. The Com- 
missioners have control of the bond issue for im- 
proving the water front, constructing wharves, 
sheds, roadways, etc. They must furnish the 
Governor with an annual detailed account of the 
receipts and expenditures, and this report must 
be published once in the official journal of the 
city of New Orleans. 

"Board of Health. The State Board of Health 
is composed of representative physicans from 



different parts of the State. It is the duty of 
this board to protect the people from the 
sale of injurious, or adulterated drugs, foods, 
and drinks, and against any and all adul- 
terations of the general necessaries of life. 
See Chapter V. 

Conservation Commission. In 1912, a Con- 
servation Commission was established for the 
purpose of preserving the natural resources of 
the State. This commission is composed of 
three members, appointed by the Govei-nor for 
a term of four years. It is their duty to inspect 
and have improved all State reservation lands 
and waters; they must see that the State's 
natural wealth is properly used and not ruth- 
lessly destroyed; they must tind out what are 
the natural resources of the State and how they 
may be best developed. The reforesting of lands 
whose timber has been used, is one of the works 
undertaken by the present commission. The 
care and enlargement of the State's great oyster 
beds, falls within the province of the com- 
mission. 



EDUCATIONAL AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS SUPPORTED BY THE STATE. 



The State supports four large educational 
institutions, namely: the State University at 
Baton Rouge, the State Normal at Natchitoches, 
and the two industrial schools at Ruston and 
Lafayette, and several charitable institutions, 



the two Insane Asylums, at, respectively 
Pineville and Jackson, the school for the 
deaf and blind, Charity Hospital, and other 
public charity institutions conducted under 
State authority. 



SUFFRAGE AND ELECTIONS. 



Electors. In Louisiana, electors are males 
over twenty-one years of age and who possess 
the following qualifications : 

Residential. He must have been a resident 
of the State for two years, of the parish one 
year, and of the precinct six months preceding 
the election; removal from a precinct, how- 
ever, does not operate against a person until 
six months thereafter. 

Educational. He must be able to write his 
application for registration in English or in his 
own tongue or, if prevented from so doing by 
a physical disability, the registration officer or 
deputy may write it at his dictation, under his 
oath attesting his disability. 



Property Qualification. The possession of 
property assessed at $300 and on which all taxes 
are paid, serves in lieu of the educational quali- 
fication. 

Poll Tax Qualification. Men between the 
ages of twenty-one and sixty years must pay a 
poll tax of a dollar a year, which tax is used 
to help support the public schools. Poll taxes 
are liens only upon assessed property. No man 
may vote at any election who has not paid his 
poll tax for two j'ears preceding that in which 
he desires to vote; this tax must be paid on or 
l)efore December 31st of each year. "Any 
person who shall pay the poll tax of another, 
or advance him money for that purpose in order 



THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK: 



XL 



to influeuce his vote, is guilty of bribery and 
punishable accordingly. ' ' 

Voting of Taxpayers in Political Sub- 
divisions. In order to vote as taxpayers, the 
only qualifications are those of age and resi- 
dence; women of age who are taxpayers, have 
the right to vote in such elections either in 
person or by an agent authorized in writing. 
No other person may vote at such elections un- 
less they be registered voters. 

Disbarment from. Voting. "Persons con- 
victed of any crime punishable by imprisonment 
in the penitentiary and who have not had the 
right of suffrage restored to them, inmates of 
any charitable institution except the Soldiers' 
Home, those confined in a public prison, inter- 
dicted persons, and persons notoriously insane 
or idiotic, whether interdicted or not," are not 
allowed to vote, hold any office or appointment 
of honor, trust, or profit in Louisiana. 

Manner and Time of Voting. Voting is by 
ballot except "in elections by persons in a rep- 
rentative capacity, ' ' when the vote is . viva- 
voce. The general State election is held once 
every four years on the Tuesday following the 
third Monday in April. The next State election 
will be held in 1916 and every four years there- 
after. 



Gain and Loss of Residence. Persons in the 
employ of the State or United States, whether 
civil or military, or "engaged in the navi 
gation of the waters of the State, or United 
States, or of the high seas, or while a student 
at an institution of learning," are not 
considered to have gained a residence be- 
cause of their presence, nor list it because 
of their absence. 

The Ballot. Ballots are furnished by the 
State for the general State elections. Ballots 
are so printed that an elector may vote a 
straight party ticket or vote individually. The 
ballots are cast in secret. 

Voting. No registration may take place 
within thirty days preceding an election. A 
man desiring to vote, must register as an elector 
and present his registration papers and two poll 
tax receipts for two years previous to the elec- 
tion in which he wishes to vote. 

TOPICS: Bill of Rights; Legislative Department; Executive 
Department; Judicial Department; Various Officials; 
Some General Provisions of the Constitution; The Parish 
as a Unit of Government; The Town as a Unit of Gov- 
ernment; Taxation; Various Boards; Support Given to 
Educational and Charitable Public Institutions; Suffrage 
and Elections. 

REFEEEHCES: Constitutions of 1913 and 1898; J. E. 
Ficklen, History and Government of Louisiana. 




SEAL OF STATE OF LOUISIANA. 

—Courtesy of W. 0. Hart. 



GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA. 



GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA UNDER FRENCH RULE. 

Pierre le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville ; 1699-1700 

Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1701-1713 

Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac 1713-1716 

De 1 'Epinay (Christian name unrecorded) 1717-1718 

Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1718-1724 

Pierre Dugue de Boisbriant (ad interim) 1724 

Perrier (Christian name unrecorded) 1725-1732 

Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1733-1743 

Pierre PranQois, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal - 1743-1752 

Louis Billouart, Baron de Kerleree 1753-1763 

D 'Abadie (Christian name unrecorded) 1763-1765 

Aubry 1765-1766 

GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA UNDER SPANISH RULE. 

Antonio de Ulloa 1766-1768 

Alexander, Count O 'Reilly 1768-1769 

Louis de IJnzaga y Amerzaga . 1769-1776 

Bernardo de Galvez y Gallardo 1777-1785 

Estevan Eodriquez Miro 1785-1791 

Francisco Louis Hortes, Baron de Carondelet 1792-1797 

Gayosa de Lemos 1797-1799 

Francisco de Bouligny 1799 

Sebastian, Marquis de' Casa Calvo y O 'Farril 1799-1801 

Juan Manuel de Salcedo. . , 1801-1803 

GOVERNORS OF THE TERRITORY OF ORLEANS. 

William Charles Cole Clairborne 1804-1812 



GOVERNORS OF THE STATE OF LOUISIANA. 

William Charles Cole Clairborne 1812-1816 

Jacques P. ViUere •. 1816-1820 

Thomas Boiling Robertson (resigned) 1820 

H. S. Thibodeaux, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) 

Henry Johnson 1824 

Pierre Derbigny (died in oflfice) 1828 

A. Beauvais, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) 1829 

Jacques Dupre 

Andre Bienvenu Roman 1831 

Edward Douglas White 1835 

Andre Bienvenu Roman 1839 

Alexander Mouton 1843 

Isaac Johnson 1846 

Joseph W. Walker 1850 

Paul Octave Hebert 1853 

Robert Charles Wicklifee _ 1856 

Thomas Overton Moore - 1860 

General George F. Shepley (Military Governor) 1862 

Henry Watkius Allen (under Confederate government) 1864 

Michael Hahn (under Federal government) 1864 

James Madison Wells, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) 1864 

James Madison Wells 1866 

Benjamin F. Flanders (under military authority) ■ 1867- 

Joshua Baker (under military authority) 1868 

Henry Clay Warmoth 1868-1873 

John McEnery (counted out by the Returning Board) 1873 

Peter B. S. Pinchback, Lieutenant Governor (Acting Governor) 1873 

William Pitt Kellogg, Governor de facto 1873-1877 

Francis T. Nicholls : 1877-1880 

Louis Alfred Wiltz (died in office) 1880-1881 

S. Dougl^is McEnery, Lieutenant Governor (succeeded Wiltz as Governor) 1881 

S. Douglas McEnery. , , 1884- 

Francis T. Nicholls 1888 

Murphy J. Foster 1892 

William Wright Heard 1900 

Newton Crain Blanchard . 1904 

Jared Y. Sanders 1908 

Luther E. Hall 1912 



1824 
1824 
1828 
1829 
1830 
1830 
1835 
1839 
1843 
1846 
1850 
1853 
1856 
1860 
1864 
1864 
1865 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 



1884 
1888 
1892 
1900 
1904 
1908 
1912 



XIII. 



INDEX. 



Abattoir Companies, 96 

Abbadie, D', 14. 

Abraham, 83. 

Adams, President John, 18. 

Adulteration, 54. 

Africa, mention of, 20; 41; 73; 129. 

Agrienlture and Immigration, State Board of, IX. 

Alabama, State, mention of, 7; 73; 76; 88; 96. 

Algiers, 32> 39; Branch Library, 120. 

Allard, Louis, 149. 

Alleghenies, mention of, 10; 12; 18; 69; River, 18. 

Alliance Fran^aise, 123. 

All Saints' Day, 132 

Almonaster y Roxas, Don, 16-17; 103; Widow of, 133. 

Alphand, engineer, 143. 

America, mention of, 22; .59; 60; 61; 76; 99; City planning 
in, 145. 

American Revolution, 15; 128. 

American, Baptist Home Mission Society, 118; Domination 
in Louisiana, 23-48; Folk Lore Society, 125; Influence on 
building of New Orleans, 147; Missionary Association, 
118; Rule, 109-110; Ships, 72; Sugar Refinery, 67; 80; 88. 

Americans, mention of, 18; 19; 23; 30; 31; 44; 109; 110; 128. 

Amusements in New Orleans 1800, 21. 

Animals of Louisiana, 95. 

Annunciation- Square, 150. 

Anse la Butte, 87. 

Antwerp, mention of, 72. 

Appraisers, State Board of, IX. 

Architecture, mention of, 32; 42; See Chapter XVI., 143-148. 

Argentina, mention of, 74. 

Arizona, mention of, 88. 

Ark, The, mention of, 83. 

Arkansas River, mention of, 7; 9; State of, 30; 72; 76; 87; 96. 

Armesto, Don Andreas Lopez de, 109. 

Art, NeW|Comb School of, 116. 

Arts and Sciences, College of, 116. 

Asia, mention of, 41; 61; 73; 81; 92; 128. 

Asiatics, mention of, 129. "t 

Asphalt, 152. -^ 'J 

Assessment, 140-141. 

Assessors, Board of, 141. . ;(^ 

Association of Army of Tennessee, mention of, 106. 

Association of Army of Virginia, mention of, 106. 

Association of Commerce, 148. 

Asylums, 104-106. .'.' ' 

Atehafalaya, Bank of, 33; River, 71. 

Athenaeum, 130. f" 

Athenee Louisianais, 123; 125. ' "■ 

Athens, 143. 

Atlanta, 88. 

Atlanteans, 130. 

Atlantic Ocean, 13; Trade, 18; Cable Companies, 61; Coast, 
6; 26; 31; Ports, 83. 

Attakapas 'Cadians, 20. 

Attendance, Department of, 114. 

Attorney-General, 97; 98; VI; IX. 

Aubry, 14. 

Auditor, State, III.; IX. 

Audubon, John James, 120; Park, mention of, 39; 40; 47; 
80; 116; 117; 148; 149-1.50; Street, mention of, 118; 125. 

Augusta, Ga., mention of, 124. 

Australia, mention of, 61; 74. 

Austria, mention of, 72; 74; 133; People of, 129. 



Auxiliary Sanitary Association, 53. 
Avery's Island, 85j 86. 
Avoyelles Parish, 126. 
Aztecs, mention of, 59. 

Babylon, mention of, 143. 

Bacteriological Department, 55; 56. 

Balboa, C. Z., 152. 

Balize, mention of, 10; 14. 

Ballot, 140; XI. 

Baltimore, mention of, 31; 72; 105; 131; 132; 149. 

Bananas, 68; 72; 73. 

Banks, Royal Bank of Tra.nce, 101; Louisiana, 101; Lou- 
isiana Planters', 101; Gas Company, 101; Canal, 70; 101; 
Carrollton, ■ 101; Commercial, 101; Mechanics and 
Traders', 101; Whitney-Central, 42; 101; Hibernia, 101. 

Banks' Arcade, 32. 

Banking, 101. 

Banks, General, 101. 

Bar Association, Louisiana, American, 99. 

Barataria Bay, mention of, 26; Bayou, 42; 43; 94. 

Baratarian Pirates, 26; 98. 

Barcelona, mention of, 72. 

Baronne, Street, mention of, 63; 103. 

Barracks, 17; 63; Street, 13; 145. 

Barrett, actor, 38. 

Barrios, mention of, 72. 

Barton, Dr., mention of, 100. 

Bastille, mention of, 14; 133. 

Baton Rouge, mention of, 15; 115; 119; 122; I. 

Battle of New Orleans, 28; 29; 98; Centennial Celebration 
of, 43-44. 

Batture, mention of, 2; Riots, 25. 

Bayou Road, mention of, 21; 24; 63. 

Beale, Captain, 131. 

Beaubois, Father, mention of, 107. 

Beaumont, mention of, 87. 

Beauregard, Gen. P. G. T., 33; 74; Square (Congo), 117; 32; 
School, 112. 

Beauty of Right Living, 155. 

Beer, Manufacture of, 90. 

Belfast, 72. 

Belgian Block, 151. 

Belgium, mention of, 72; 74; People of, 129. 

Belize, mention of, 72. 

Bell, Alexander Graham, mention of, 61. 

Belle Isle, mention of, 85; 86. 

Bench and Bar, 97; 99. 

Benjamin, Judah P., 98. 

Berlin, 143-144. 

Bie:nvenue; Bayou, mention of, 26; 27; 56. 

Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne de, 9; 10; 11; 12; 107; 145; 
House of, 146; Street, 12; 108; 145. 

Bilboa, mention of, 72. 

Bill of Rights, I. 

Biloxi, mention of 9; Bay, 9. 

Bingen, mention of, 133. 

Birds, 95; 151. 

Birmingham, mention of, 72; 88. 

Black Code, 11. 

Blanc, Archbishop, 116. 

Blue, Surgeon-General Rupert, 57. 

Bluefields, mention of, 72. 



XIV. 



INDEX— Continued. 



Boards: — Agriculture and Immigration, IX.; Charities and 
Corrections, IX.-X.; Civil Service, Commissioners of, 
1S8; 139; Conservation Commission, 84; 95; X.; Health, 
City; 51; 53; 55-56; 57; 96; Health, State, 53-54; 57; 
96; X.; Liquidation of City Debt, 40; 139; Liquidation 
of State Debt, X.; Orleans Levee, 4; 40; 139; Public 
Education, State, 111; 125; IX. Public Libraries, City, 
139; Public School Directors, New Orleans, 111; 139; 
Sewerage and Water, 47. 

Bocas del Toro, mention of, 72. 

Boll-weevil, 78. 

Bonnet Carre, crevasse, 3. 

Booth, actor, mention of, 38. 

Boots, Manufacture of, 89. 

Bore, Etieune de, 18; 79; 123; 149. 

Borgne, Lake, mention of, 1; 2; 8; 26; 27; 46; 70. 

Boston, mention of, 31; 35; 70; 87; 128; 145; 148; Club, 130. 

Bourbon Street, mention of, 21; 131. 

Bragg, General, mention of, 100. 

Branch Libraries, 120. 

Brass Works, 89. 

Brazil, mention of, 74. 

Bremen, mention of, 72. 

Brennan, Joseph, 124. 

Brittany, mention of, 122. 

Brooklyn, 118; Navy Hospital, 93. 

Bubonic Plague, 50; 52; 57. 

Buffalo, mention of, 31. 

Building of New Orleans, 145-148. 

Building Ornamentation (New Orleans), 146-147. 

Buililings of Note, 147. 

Buras, Elorentine, 93. 

Burgundy, Fort, mention of, 17. 

Burke, W. B., 117. 

Burr, Aaron, Conspiracy of, 24. 

Butler, General B. F., 38; 101; 110. 

Cabildo, 15; 16; 17; 19; 20; 22; 23; 103; 120; 146. 

Cable, George W., 125-126. 

Caddo Parish, 87. 

Cadillac, Governor, 9. 

Cadiz, mention of, 72. 

" Ca Ira," mention of, 17. 

Calcasieu River, mention of, 71; Parish, 84. 

Caldwell, James H., 33; 37; 38; Mrs. J. H. Caldwell, 38; 

Parish, 84. 
California, mention of, 87; 151. 
Calliope Street, mention of, 67; 119. 
Campeachy, mention of, 15. 
I 'amp Nicholls, 106. 
Camp Street, mention of, 24; 62. 
Canaan, mention of, 83. 
t'anada, mention of, 8; 13; 25. 
Canadians, 12; 20. 

Canal Bank, 33; Building, 42; Bank and Trust Company, 101. 
Canals, Carondelet, 17; 45; 49; 70; Intercoastal, 70; 71; 

Lake to River, 70; New Basin, 4; 70. 
Canal Street, mention of, 3; 17; 18; 20; 40; 63; 67; 70; 100; 

103; 112; 116; 118; 128; 130; 131; 146; 148; Branch 

Library, 120. 
Canal Zone, mention of, 141. 

Canaries, mention of, 19. * 

Canning Factories, 90. 
Canonge, L. Placide, 123. 
Canova artist, mention of, 36. 
Cape Breton Island, mention of, 1.1. 
Cape Gracias, mention of, 72. 
Capital at New Orleans, mention of, 10. 
Capture of New Orleans, 38. 
Ca])uchins, mention of, 11-12; 10; 20; 107. 



Cargo, 64; 67-68. 

Caribbean, mention of, 72. 

Car Lines, Street, 63. 

Carnegie, Andrew, mention of, 119; 139. 

Carnival, 129; 131. 

Carondelet, Baron de, 16; 18; 36; 45; 49; 153; Canal, 17; 

45; 49; 70; Fortifications, 17; Methodist Church, 33; 

Street, 33; 147. 
Carolina, Schooner, mention of, 27. 
Carpet Baggers, 39; 111. 
Carroll, General, mention of, 26. 
Carrollton, 3; 18; 40; Avenue, 148; Bank, 101; Bend, 2; 3; 

Railroad, 40; 63. 
Casa Calvo, Marquis de, 22; 23; 24. 
Casket Girls, 11. 
Catalonians, mention of, 19; 20. 
Cathedral, St. Louis, mention of, 19; 20; 21; 29; 33; 34; 

107; 120; 146. 
Cat Island, mention of, 32. 
Cecil, Father, 107. 
Ceiba, mention of, 72. 
Cemeteries, 63. 

Cenas, Blaise, 59; Doctor 100. 

Centennial Celebration, Battle of New Orleans, 43-44. 
Central American Countries, mention of, 1 ; 4] ; 87; 88; 92. 
Central States, mention of, 72. 
Chaise, de la, mention of, 99. 
Chaland, Bayou, mention of, 95. 
( 'haldea, mention of, 83. 
Chalmette Sugar Refiner.y, 80. 
Changes in Shape of New Orleans, 146. 
"Chant du Depart," mention of, 27. 
Charitable Institutions, 103-106. 
Charities and Corrections, State Board of, IX. 
Charity Hospital, 12; 16; 19; 32; 50; 57; 58; 103; 104; X. 
Charity, Sisters of 103. 
Charivari, 133. 
Charles III., mention of, 14. 
Charles River, mention of, 143. 
Charleston, S. C, mention of, 40; 81; 123; 148. 
Charlevoix, Pere, 10. 
Charter of New Orleans, 136; 142.. 
Chartres Street, mention of, 3; 12; 16; 20; 21; 108; 
Cheerfulness, virtue of, 154. 
Chef Menteur, mention of, 42. 
Cherry Valley, mention of, 115. 
Chicago, mention of, 61; 64; 69; 72; 128; 145. 
Chickasaws, War with, 12. 
Chief Justice of Louisiana, I.; IV. 
China, mention of, 74; 90; 92; 125. 
Chinese, mention of, 59; 94; 129. 
Choctawhatehee Bay, 7. 
Choetaws, mention of, 25; 27; 122. 
Cholera, Asiatic, mention of, 51; 52; 70. 
Christ Church, mention of, 33. 
Christian Brothers' College, 118. 
Cincinnati, mention of, 125. 
City Attorney, 41. 
City Bank, mention of, 33. 
City Beautiful, 143-155. 
City Boards, 138-139. 
City Building, 143-145. 
City Engineer, 41. 
City Government, 135-142. 
City Hall, 33; 119; 130; 140; 147. 
City Library, 119. 
City Limits, 1. 
City Park, 2; 43; 63; 149. 
City Planning in America, 145. 
City Railroad Comiiany, 63. 



1 



INDEX — Continued. 



XV. 



City Treasurer, 140; 141. 

Citrus Fruits, 92-93. 

Civic Interest, 135-136; 155. 

Civic Virtues, 154-155. 

Civil Code, 97. 

Civil Law, 97. 

Civil Service Commission, 125; 138; 139. 

Civil War, mention of, 38; 50; 110. 

Claiborne, W. C. C, 23; 24; 25; 26; 30; 53; 101. 

Clay, Henry, 36. 

Cleaning, City, 53. 

Cleanliness, Virtue of, 154. 

' ' Clearing, "75. 

Clemens (Mark Twain), 126. 

Cleveland, 145. 

Climate, 4-5. • 

Clio Street, mention of, 130; 131. 

Cochrane, Admiral, 26; 27; 30. 

Code Napoleon, 97. 

Coffee, General, 26; Import, 72; 73. 

Colbert, Minister, 8. 

Coliseum Place, 150. 

Collector of Customs, 74. 

College of Orleans, 109-110. 

Cologne, 144. 

Colon, mention of, 72. 

Colonial Education, 107-109. 

Columbian Exposition, mention of 145. 

Commerce, 18; 22; 30; 34; 41 

Commercial Bank, 33, 47; 101. 

Commercial Library, 119. 

Commercial Eeview of New Orleans, 123. 

Commissioners of Port of New Orleans, Board of, 40; 66-67; 
77; X. 

Commmission Form of Government, 43; in State, VII. 

Commission Plan of City Government, 136-137; in New 
Orleans, 137; Distinctive Features of, 141-142. 

Commissions Given by State, III. 

Common Law, English, 97; 115. 

Common Street, mention of, 23; 24; 103. 

Communication, Systems of, 59-63. 

Comus, Krewe of, 130. 

Company of The West or of Indies, 9; 12; 100. 

Comptroller, 40;41. 

Confederate Memorial Hall, 120; Veterans, 106. 

Confederacy, 38; Army of, 110; 118; Note of, 101. 

Conservation Commission, 84; 95; X. 

Conspiracy of October, 1768, 14-15. 

Constables, VI. 

Constitution of Louisiana, 25; 67; 142. 

Contagion, 55. 

Convents, 117-118. 

Convicts, VI. 

Cook, Bayou, 95. 

Cooke, Sir William, 60. 

Cooper, actor, 38. 

Copenhagen, mention of, 72; 87. 

Copper Works, 89. 

Corn, 78. 

Coroners, VI. 

Cortez (Port), 72. 

Costa Rica, 72. 

Cotton: Introduced, 13; Outlook in 1812, 25; Centennial 
Exposition, 40; 42; 62; 150; Trade in, 72; 73; Cultiva- 
tion of, 76-78; Exchange, 76; Futures, 77; Warehouse, 
77-78; Manufacture of, 77; 88; 89. 

Council, Commission, 55; 67; City, 119; 132; 139. 

Council Elections, 137. 

Courage, Virtue of, 155. 

Courmant, Felix de, 123. 



Courtesy, Virtue of, 155. 

Courthouse, New Orleans, 42. 

Court of Appeals: Jurisdiction, Judges, Circuits, Sessions, IV. 

Credit System in Business, 30. 

Creek (Indians), 125. 

Creoles, 18; 19; 20; 21; 24; 26; 30; 31; 124; 125; 126; 128; 

129; 133. 
Creosoted Wood Blo.ek, 152. 
Crevasses, 2; 3; 49. 
Criminal Coui-thouse, 40; 129. 
Crozat, Anthony, 9. 

Cuba, mention of, 7; 15; 24; 51; Trade with, 74. 
Cula-Be, 123. 

Cumberland iJiver, 25; Telephone and Telegrajih Company, 62. 
Curators of State Museum, Board of, 125. 
Currency, Colonial 13. 
Customhouse, 17; 33; 74; Street, 119. 
Customs, 129-134. 
Customs Officers, 75. 
Cypress, 83. " . 

Dakin, architect, 33. 

Dallas, mention of, 88. 

Dauphine Street, mention of, 3; 12; 63. 

Davis, Mrs. MoUie E. Moore, 124; 126. 

Davy, Humphrey, 60. 

De Bow, James D. B., 123; Eeview, 123. 

De Launey, mention of, 133. 

De I'Epinay, 9. 

Delery, Dr. C, 123. 

Delgado, Isaac, 149; Art Museum, 149; Tjentral Trades School 
for Boys, 114. 

"Delta," The, 124. 

Denegre Building, mention of, 62. 

Denmark, mention of, 72; people of, 129. 

Departmental Teaching, 111. 

Departments of City Government, 138. 

Departments of State Government, I.-VI. 

Depouilly, architect, 33. 

De Soto, Hernando, 7; Parish, 87. 

Destitute Boys, Asylum of, 105. 

Dimitry, Alexander, 110; Charles, 125. 

Distribution of Powers of City Government, 138. 

District Attorney, VI. 

District Courts: Jurisdiction, number of judges, jury, ses- 
sions, IV.-V. 

Districts: First, 11; Second (Municipality), 31; Third, 3; 31; 
Fourth, 33; 39; Fifth, 39; 42; Sixth, 39; 40; 41; 42; 
Seventh, 40; 42; 137. 

Dock Board, 67; 69; 71. 

Domestic Art, 113. 

Domestic Science, 113. 

Dominican Convent, 117. 

Drainage, 41; 42; 45-48; 49; 53. 

Drama, English, 124; French, 122-123. 

Dress in New Orleans, 1800, 20. 

Drugs, Habit-forming, 54; Laws, .54. 

Dryades Street, 103; 129. 

Dry Dock, 66. 

Dublin, mention of, 124. 

Dubreuil, mention of, 13. 

Duelling in 1800, 21. 

Dumaine Street, 21; 118. 

Duquesne, Fort, mention of, 13. 

Eads, Captain .James B., 40; 65. 

Early French and Spanish Influence on Architecture, 146. 

East Indian Is., 74. 

Easton, Warren, 111. 

Ebony, 89. 



XVI. 



INDEX — Continued. 



Edgerly, 87. , 

Edison, Thomas, mention of, 61. 

Education, 35; 107-121. 

Educational and Charitable Institutions, State, X. 

Egypt, mention of, 83. 

Elections, City, 139-140; State, X-XI. 

Electors, City, Qualifications of, 140; State, Qualifications 

of, X.-XI. 
Elementary Schools, 111. 
Elkin Club, mention of, 37. 
El Paso, 61. 

Elysian Fields, mention of, 21; 32. 
Emancipation Proclamation, mention of. 111. 
Encyclopedia Britannica, mention of, 124; of Trade and 

Commerce of the United States, 124. 
England, mention of, 13; 14; 15; 25; 32; 72; 73; 82; 97; 98; 

125; 126. 
English at Battle of New Orleans, 26; 27; 28. 
English Literature of New Orleans, 123-127. 
English Turn, 52. 
"Entering" (port), 75. 
Epidemics, 35; 49-51; 53; 133. 
Episcopal Home, 106. 
Erie, Lake, mention of, 7; 31. 
Esplanade Avenue, mention of, 17; 18; 40; 63; 149; Girls' 

High School, 112. 
Essence of Oranges, 93. 
Etruria, Kingdom of, mention of, 22. 
Euphrates River, mention of, 143. 
Europe, mention of, 8; 9; 13; 18; 21; 30; 31; 32; 41; 73; 

77; 90; 100; 108; 128; 129; People of, 129. 
Evangeline Parish, mention of, 82. 
Evening Schools, 112. 
Executive Department, State, III. 
Exports, 72-73. 

Expenditure for Paving, 152-153. 
Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital, 104. 

Faraday, Michael, mention of, 60. 

Farragut, Admiral, mention of, 38. 

Faubourg Marigny, 31; 110. 

Faubourg Ste. Marie, 18; 25; 30; 31; 32; 109; 110; 128. 

Federal Army, 110. 

Field, Cyrus, mention of, 61. 

Filter Plant, 47; 48. 

Finances, 1815-1860, 33-34; Today, 43. 

Finlay, Dr. Carlos, mention of, 51. 

Fire Department, 40. 

Firemen's Charitable Association, 33. 

First Presbyterian Church, 33. 

Fish, 93-94. 

Fisk Library, 119. 

Floods, 2. 

Flora of New Orleans, 150; 151. 

Florence, mention of, 72. 

Florida, mention of, 13; 16; 25; 26; 31; 93; 151. 

Food and Drug Laws and Eegulations, 54. 

Food Inspection, 55. 

Foodstuffs, 91-96. 

Fontera, mention of, 72. 

Forests of Louisiana, 84. 

Forrest, Edwin, actor, 38. 

Fortier, Professor Aleee, 125. 

Foucher, Pierre, mention of, 149. 

Fourth French and Indian War, 13. 

Fox River, mention of, 7. 

France, At Close of Eighteenth Century, 7; 8; mention of, 

11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 18; 21; 22; 24; 72; 73; 74; 84; 97; 

98; 99; 100; 107; 108; 115; 117; 123; 125; 129; 133. 
Francis T. Nicholls Industrial School, 114. 



Franco-Prussian War, mention of, 144. 

Frankfort-on-the-Main, 61; 144. 

Franklin, Benjamin, mention of, 59; 61. 

Frasch, Herman, 84; System of, 84. 

Freedmen's Bureau, 111; 118. 

French, B. F., mention of, 119. 

French, Cities, 146; Language, 109; 122; Literature, 122 
123; Market, 17; 19; 20; 32; 54; Opera House, 130 
131; Orphan Asylum, 33; Place, 149; Refugees, 104 
Settlers, 12; 13; 19; 24; 26; 49. 

Frenchmmen's Day, 133. 

Freret Street, mention of, 108. 

Frisco Railroad Company, 67. 

Frisco Slip, 67. 

Fruits, 92-93. 

Fulton, Robert, mention of, 25. 

Furbearing Animals, 95. 

Gallier, Architect, 33; 47. 

Galveston, mention of, 61; 73; 76. 

Galvez, Bernado, 15; 109; 122. 

Gambling, VI. 

Garbage, Removal of, 56; 59. 

Garden Cities of England, 144-145. 

Gas, 87; Company Bank, 301. 

Gayarre, Charles, 89; 123; 124; 125; 149. 

Gazette, The, 21. 

General Assembly, Louisiana, 123; 136; I.-II. 

Genoa, 72. 

Gentilly Terrace, mention of, 2; 42; 106; Road, 21. 

George V., King of England, mention of, 43. 

Georgia, mention of, 7; 76. 

Germans, mention of, 9; 12; 19; 20; 28; 33; 129; Catholies, 
133; Coast, 11; 20; 26; Pre-eminence in City Planning 
and Causes of Success, 143-144; Protestant Orphans' 
Home, 134. 

Germany, mention of, 72; 74; 134, 

Gibbs, General, mention of, 28. 

Gibson Hall, 116. 

Girod Street, mention of, 24, 

Glasgow, mention of, 72. ' 

"Gombo," 20. 

Gopher Wood, mention of, 83. 

Government of Louisiana, 13; 14; 25; Supplement. 

Government of New Orleans, 24; 40; 41; Commission Form 
of, 43; 1805-1915, 139. 

Governor of Louisiana, 67; 70; 106; 139; I., II., III.; 
Election, Term, Eligibility, Salary, Duties and Powers 
of. III., Vni., IX, 

Grain Elevators, 67, 

Grand Coteau College, 116. 

Grand Duke Alexis, 130. 

Grant, Captain, 32; General Ulysses S., 38. ' 

Gravier, 18; 23; 24; 151; Street, 24; 62. 

Gray, Elisha, mention of, 61. 

Great Britain, mention of, 18; 24; 30; 43. 

Great Fires of 1788 and 1794, 16. 

Great Lakes, mention of, 6; 31 

Great Southern Telephone and Telegraph Company, men- 
tion of, 62, 

Greece, mention of, 73; 83; People of, 129; 143. 

Grunewald Hotel, 42; 61. 

Grymes, John R. 98. 
Gaudeloupe, mention of, 24. 
Guatemala, mention of, 72. 

Gulf of Mexico, mention of, 1; 4; 5; 7; 8; 9; 31; 41; 64; 65; 
Coast, 6; 87; 93; 94; 98; Level, 2; Ports, 50; Stream, 4. 
Gulfport, mention of, 83. 

Haehard, Sister, Madeleine, 12. 
Hahnemann School, 100. 



INDEX — Continued. 



xvn. 



Hall, Oakey, mention of, 36. 

Hamburg, mention of, 72. 

Hampstead, mention of, 144. 

Harbor, 65-66. 

Harrison, Dr., mention of, 100. 

Harvey Canal, 42. 

Haughery, Margaret, 105. 

Haussmann, Baron, mention of, 143. 

Havana, mention of, 13; 14; 15; 19; 50; 72; 82; 108. 

Havre, mention of, 72. 

Health Conditions, 45-58; City Board of, 51; 53; 55; 56; 

57; 96; State Board of, 53; 54; 57; 96; X. 
Hearn, Lafcadio, 125. 

Hebrew Benevolent Association, mention of, 58. 
Hebrews, mention of, 105. 
Hennen, Alfred, 98. 
Henry Clay Avenue, 104. 
Hibernia Bank, mention of, 101. 
High Temperature Destructor, 56-57. 
High S,chool, 112. 
Holeombe, Dr. W. H., 100; 125. 
Holland, 3; 45; 72; 73 
Holy Cross College, 118. 
Homeopathic School, 100. 
Homes, 1815-1860, 35. 
Homestead Associations, 101. 
Honduras, mention of, 72. 
Honesty, Virtue of, 154. 
Honolulu, mention of, 57. 
Hooke, Robert, mention of, 61 
Horter and Fenner, mention of, 62. 
Hospice des Pauvres, 103. 
Hospitals, 58, 103-105. 
Hotel Dieu, 58. 
Houma Indians, 9 

House of Representatives, Louisiana, 24; I.; II. 
Houston, mention of, 88. 
Howard Association, 33; 50; 105; Charles T., 120; Frank T., 

120; Memorial Library, 120; Street, 103. 
Howe, W. M., 124; 125. 
Hungary, mention of, 133. 
Hungerford, Edward, 148. 
Hunt, Doctor, mention of, 100. 
Huron, Lake, mention of, 107. 
Hutchinson Memorial, 116. 
Hyams, Mrs. Chapman, mention of, 149. 
Hygiene, Department of, 113-114. 

Iberville, Pierre le Moyne d', 8; 9; 99 

Ice, Manufacture of, 88 

Illinois, mention of, 9; 87; Central Railroad, 40; 67; 69; 71; 

72; 92; River, 7; 73. 
Immaculate Conception, College of, 116. 
Immigrants, European, 33. 
Immigration Station, 42; 66; 90. 
Impeachment, I. 
Imports, 73; 74. 

Incorporation of New Orleans, 24. 
India, mention of, 13; 73; 74. 
Indiana, mention of, 73. 
Indianapolis, mention of, 72. 
Indian Medicine Men, 99. 
Industry, Virtue of, 154. 
Influence on Architecture of Available Building Material 

and Climate, 146; of German Movement, 144. 
Initiative, 141. 

Inspection, Sanitary, 53; 54; of Food, 55; of Slaughtering, 96. 
Institutions for the Colored, 118. 
Insurance Companies, 101. 
Intercoastal Canal, 70-71. 



Inundations, Causes, 2; Crevasses, 3; 35. 

Ireland, mention of, 72; 124; 125. 

Irish, mention of, 19-20; 25; 33; 105; 129. 

Iron Mountain-Missouri Pacific Railroad System, 71, 

Islennes, mention of, 20. 

Isolation Hospital, 51. 

Italians, mention of, 19; 51. 

Italy, mention of, 22; 72; 73; 74. 

.Jackson, Andrew, 26; 27; 29; 30; 44; 98; 120; Avenue, 
mention of, 43; 63; 106; Barracks, 32; School, 112; 
Square, 20; 146; 149; 150; City in Mississippi, 32. 

.Jamaica, mention of, 49. 

Jamison, Mrs. Cecilia Viets, 126. 

Japan, mention of, 74; 126. 

.Japanese, mention of, 81; 129. 

Jean Lafitte, 25; 26; 85. 

Jefferson, Thomas, 1; 22; 24; City, 39; Parish, 1; 43; 88; 92. 

Jefferson's Island, mention of, 85. 

Jefferson-Plaquemines Drainage District, 42. 

Jenner, Dr., mention of, 49. 

Jennings Oil Fields, 87. 

Jesuits, 11; 13; 23; 33; 79; 93; 107; 116-117. 

Jetties, 40; 64-65. 

Jewish Widows and Orphans ' Home, 105-106. 

Jews, mention of, 129. 

.Johns Hopkins University, mention of, 125. 

Johnston, Col. William Preston, 115; 124; 125. 

Joliet, 7. 

Judicial Department, State, IV.- VI. 

July Fourteenth, 133. 

Justices of the Peace, VI. 

Juvenile Courts: Courts, Purpose, Terms "Neglected" and 
"Delinquent," Officers, V. 

Kansas City, mention of, 64; 69. 
Keane, General, mention of, 28. 
Kea.ns, actors, mention of, 38. 
Kenner Plantation, 3; Town, 80. 
Kentuckians, mention of, 17; 18; 28. 

Kentucky, mention of, 17; 73; 82; Flatboatmeu, 20; Sharp- 
shooters, 28. 
Kerlerec, Governor, 14; 17. 

Key West, mention of, 61. ' 

Kindness, Virtue of, 154. ' 

King, Miss Grace Elizabeth, 126; 133. 
Kohnke, Dr. Q., 51; 100. 
Kruttschnitt, Ernest B., 98. 

Lafayette, mention of, 33; 39; Square, 119. 

Lafitte (brothers), 25-26. 

Lafourche Parish, mention of, 95. 

Lafreniere, mention of, 14; 15. 

Lakanal, mention of, 110. 

Lake Charles (City), 71. 

Lake to River Canals, 70. 

Lakeview, mention of, 42. 

' ' La Lanterne Magique, ' ' mention of, 25. 

Lambert, General, mention of, 28. 

Lane Mills, mention of, 77. 

"La Prise du Morne du Baton Rouge par Monseigneur de 

Galvez," 122. 
Laredo, mention of, 61. 
La Salle, 7; Parish, 84. 
Latin Americans, 128. 
Laussat, mention of, 22; 23. 

Law, Department of, 115; John, 9; Bank, 10; 11. 
Lea, Miss Fannie Heaslip, 127. 
Lee Circle, mention of, 63; 119; 120; 148. 
Leeds, Charles, 40. 



xvin. 



INDEX— Continued. 



Legislative Dciiartiiient, I.; Powcij Limitations oi, IL 
Lclainl University, 118. 

' ' Le 5[oiiiteur de la Louisiane," 21; 122. 
L 'Enfant, Charles, mention of, 145; loO. 
" Les Trois Capalins, " 21. 

" Les Compte-renilus de 1 'Athenee Louisiauais, " 123. 
Letfhworth, mention of, 144. 

Levees: Along the River, 3; Breaks, 2; Construction, 4; 
Length and Size, 3; Protection, 4; Swamp Bieelama- 
tiou, 4; 12; 18. 
Libraries, Public, 40; 118-119; Societies, 118-119. 
Lieutenant-Governor, Election, Term, Eligibility, Salary, 

Duties and Powers of, III.; IX. 
Lights in 1800, 20. 

Liquidation, City Board of, 40; 139; State Board of, X. 
Literature of New Orleans, 122-127. 
Little Woods, mention of, 42. 
Livaudais, mention of, 33. 
Liverpool, mention of, 61; 71; 72; 73; 87. 
Livingston, Edward, 98; Eobert, 22. 
Location of Cities, Conditions Governing the, 143; of New 

Orleans, 1. 
London, mention of, 72. 
Longshoremen, 67. 
Lorient, mention of, 107. 
Lotteries, VI. 

Louis XIV., 8; XV., 14; XVI., 110; .Jean, 12; 103. 
Louisiana, Before 1718, Early Explorers, Expeditions of 
Marquette and La Salle, 7; Early Colonization of, 8; 
Proprietary Colony, 9; 10; 11; 12; Colonial Govern- 
ment, 13; Transfer to Spain, 14; 17; Diocese of, 16; 
Period of Transition; 21-23; Transfer to France; 22; 
Purchase by United States, 22-23; Division, 24; Creoles 
of, 25; Admission as State, 25; 30; Secession, 38; Yellow 
Fever in, 49; Trade, 72; 73; 74; Industries, 76-87 
Cotton, 76; Corn, 78; Sugar, 79; Rice, 81; Lumber, 83 
Forest, 84; Minerals, 84; Truck Farming in, 91; Fruit: 
of, 92; Fish of, 93; Oyster Industry of, 94; G^ime of, 95 
Animals of, 95; Bench and Bar of, 97-99; Medicine, 
History of, 99-100; Banking in, 101; Trades in, 102 
Education in, 107-121; Law of, 115; Historical Associa- 
tion, 120; State Museum, 120-121; 122; 123; Historical 
Society, 123; 125; All Saints' Day in, 132; Government 
of. See Supplement; State University, 115; 119; 
Bank, 101; Planters' Bank, 101; Railway and Navi- 
gation Compan}"-, 71; Telephone Company, mention of, 62. 
Louisianians, 20; 23; 24. 
Louisville, mention of, 72. 

Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 4; 40; 41; 67; 71; 72. 
Lovell, General, mention of, 38. 
Loyola University, 116-117; 148. 
Ludlow, mention of, 38. 
Lumber, 83-84; 89. 
Luneville, Treaty of, 21-22. 
Luzenberg, Dr. C. A., 100. 
Lyceum, 119. 

McCarty 's Plantation, 3. 
Mackie, Dr., mention of, 100. 
Mackinaw Straits, mention of, 7. 
Madagascar, mention of, 81. 

Madrid, Treaty of, 18. ■ ■ • 

-Magazine Street, mention of, 24; 62; 104; ]:!1; 151. 
jSIaginnis Mills, mention of, 77. 
Magneto System, 62. 
Maliogan}', 73; 89. 
.Mail System, 59. 
Maine, mention of, 13; 89. 
Maison Blanche Building, 42, 
JIaison de Sante, 58. 



Malaria, 50. 

Malay Archipelago, mention of, 92. 

Manchac, Bayou, mention of, S; 9; Fort, 15; Church, 59. 

Manchester, mention of, 72. 

"Manifest," 75. 

Manila A^illage, mention of, 94; 13. 

Manual Training, 112-113. 

Manufactures, 41;' 88-90. 

Marconi, Gugliemo, mention of, 61. 

Mardi Gras, 129; 130; 131. 

Marigny, Plantation, mention of, 24; Faubourg, 31; 110. 

Marine Hospital, United States, 104. 

Markets: Dryades, 54; French, 17; 19; 20; 32; 54; Maga- 
zine, 62; Poydras, 32; St. Mary's, 32; Washington, 32. 

Marquette, Pere, 7; Hall, 117. 

''Marseillaise, La," mention of, 17; 27. 

Marseilles, mention of, 72. 

Martin, Fran<;ois, 97; 124. 

Martinique, Island of, mention of, 19. 

Maryland, mention of, 124. 

Massachusetts, Colony of, 59. 

Massecuite, 79; 80. 

Matagorda Bay, mention of, 8. 

Matthieu, Dr. Jules, 100. 

Maurepaus, Lake, mention of, 8. 

Mayor, mention of, 40; 41; 55; 89; 103; 137-138; 139; 140; 
List of, 44. 

McCaleb, Thomas, 127. 

McDonogh, .John, 37; 101; 105; 111; 131-132; Day, 131-132; 
— ville, 131. 

Meats, 96. 

Mechanics and Traders ' Bank, mention of, 101. 

Medical College, First, 100; of Louisiana, 114; Societies, 100. 

Medicine, History of, 99-100. 

Meetings of Commission Council, 137. 

Melpomene Canal, 45. 

Memphis, mention of, 7; 61; 88; 91. 

Mendez, Don Antonio, mention of, 79. 

Mercer, Dr. W. N., 106. 

Merchants' Exchange, mention of, 32. 

Mercier, Dr. Alfred, 123. 

Mermentau River, mention of, 71. 

Metairie Ridge and Road, 2; 21; 42; 43. 

Metropolitan Police, 39. 

Mexican Gulf Railroad, mention of, 32. 

Mexico, mention of, 7; 8; 9; 15; Cable, 61; Trade with, 

72; 88; 128. 
Michaud Tract, mention of, 42. 
Middle West, mention of, 148. 
Milhet, Jean, mention of, 14; 15. 
Military Rule, 38. 
Milliken, Mrs. Deborah, 103. 
Milneburg, mention of, 32; 36. 
Minims, Port, mention of, 25. 
Minerals, 84; 87. 
Minnesota, mention of, 73, 
Miro, Governor, mention of, 18; 108. 

Mississippi: Company (of the West), 101; River, mentioned 
frequently as "the River"; River System, 69; Valley. 
1; 3; 25; 30; 32; 64; 69; 72; 88; 103;" 1.36; Sound, 8. 
Mobile, mention of, 15; 83; 130; Bay, 8; 9. 
Modern Homes, 147. 

Modern Language Association of America, mention of, \'2~>. 
Monius, Knights of, 130. 
Monougahpla, mention of, 13. 
Monoiiolies, 13. 

.Monroe, James, 22; 30; Mayor of New Orleans, ;!8. 
Montcleone Hotel, mention of, 42. 
Aiontreal, mention of, 13. 
Morales, mention of, 18; 24. 



INDEX — Continued. 



XIX. 



Morehouse Parish, mention of, 76. 
Morse, B. F., mention of, 61. 
Mortality, Chart, rate of, 56. 
Moscoso, mention of, 7. 
Mosquito Theory, 50. 
Mulatto Exotlus, 33. 
Munich, 144. 

Mutual Benevolent Society, 100. 
Myles' Salt Mine, 86. 

Naples, mention of, 72. 

Napoleon, Bonaparte, 21-22; 25; 26; 133; III., 143; Avenue, 

47; 67; 105; Branch Library, 120. 
Narvaez, Pamphilo de, 7. 
Nashville, mention of, 124. 

Natchez, City, mention of, 24; Indians, 9; 99; War, 12. 
Natchitoches, mention of, 9; 25. 
National Sulphur Company, 85. 
Naval Station, 42; 61; 65; 66. 
Need of Government in the City, 135. 
Need of Open Space in Cities, 148-149. 

Negroes, 10; 20; 39; 110; 111; 118; Insurrection of, 12, 129. 
Nereus, 130. 

New Basin Canal, 4; 70. 

Newcomb, Mrs. Josephine Louise, 116; College, 116. 
New England, mention of, 89; 126; 143. 
New Jersey, mention of, 115. 
New Madrid, mention of, 18. 
New Mexico, mention of, 88. 
New Orleans and Carrollton Company, mention of, 63; 101. 

" " and Louisiana Construction and Improvemeift 

Company, 40. 

" " and Nashville Railroad, mention of, 32. 

" " and North Eastern Railroad, mention of, 71; 72. 

" " and Pacific Railroad, mention, of, 40. 

" " Board of Public School Directors, 111; 139. 

" " Board of Trade, 82. 

" " Canal and Banking Companjf, mention of, 70. 

" " Clearing House, mention of, 101. 

" " Cotton Market, 76. 

" " Female Orphan Asylum, 105. 

" " Great Northern Railroad mention of, 71. 

" " Lake Shore Land Company, mention of, 4; 42. 

" " Park Commissioners, Board of, 39. 

" " Parks, 149-150. 

" " Public Library, 119-121; 148; Board of Direc- 

tors of, 139. 

" " Railway and Light Company, 63. 

" " School of Medicine, 101. 

" " Southern and Grand Isle Railroad, 43. 

" " Terminal Company, 67. 

" " Texas and Mexico Railroad Company, 71 

" " Waterworks Company, 47. 

' ' New Orleans, ' ' The, 25. 
New Princeton Review, mention of; 126. 
New York City, mention of, 31; 32; 33; 34-35; 52; 72; 85; 

87; 124; 128; 143; 145. 
Niagara River, 7. 
Nicaragua, mention of, 72. 
Nieholls, Governor F. T., 106; 111. 
Nicholson, Mrs. Eliza Poitevent, 124. 
Noah, mention of, 83. 
Normal School, 110 
North America, mention of, 8; 13; 31 
North American Indian, 122. 
Northeast Pass, 31. 
Norwegians, mention of, 129. 
Novel, 125-127, 
Noyan, 15. 



Ocean Springs, mention of, 9. 

Official Language, VI. 

Ohio, Canal, mention of, 31; River, mention of, 1; 13; 25; 
31; 89; Valley, mention of, 12; 13; 18; 31; State, men- 
tion of, 73; 82. 

Oil, 87; Inspection of, 54. 

Oklahoma, mention of, 72; 87. 

Old Basin Canal, 70. 

"Old Metairie" Race Track, 37. 

Old Pelican Club, mention of, 37. 

Omaha, mention of, 71; 72. 

Ontario, Lake, mention of, 7. 

Opelonsas, mention of, 32. 

Opera House, 33 

Orange Grove, 93 

Order, Virtue of, 154. 

O'Reilly, Alexander, 15; 97; 99; 108. 

Organization of Labor, 102. 

Original Plan of New Orleans, 145-146. 

Orleans, Club, mention of, 37; Isle, mention of, 9; 13; 14; 
22; 26; Levee District, Board of Commissioners of, 4, 
40; 139; Parish, mention of, 1; 31; 55; 139; 141; 
Parish Medical Society, 100; Territory, 24; 25; 138; 
Theatre, 37; 38. 

Ouachita Parish, mention of, 82. 

Oyster Industry, 94-95. 

Ozark Mountains, mention of, 91. 

Pacific Cable Company, 61; 71; Coast, mention of, 41; Ocean, 
mention of, 61. 

Pakenham, Sir Edward, 27; 28. 

Palermo, mention of. 72. 

Panama Canal, mention of, 41; 65; 72; 74; 88; 92; Ex- 
position, 116. 

i^an-Americ.'-.n Jledical Society, mention of, 100. 

Paris, City of, 129; 133; 143; Custom of, 14; Treaty of, 178:'., 
13; 14; 15; 18. 

Parish, As a Unit of Government, The, VII.; a Public Cor- 
porate Body; Changing Lines of; Subdivisions; Issuance 
of Bonds; Police Jury; Other Officers of the; Seat of 
Government; Commission Form of Government, VII. 

Park: Function, 149; Commissions, 150. 

Parma, Prince of, mention of, 22. 

Parochial Schools, Catholic, 118. 

Parolli, Father, mention of, 51. 

Parrot, Mrs. mention of, 120. 

Paving, Street, 53; 151-153. 

Patterson, Commodore, mention of, 26. 

Pauger, mention of, 10. 

Pearl River, mention of, 93. 

"Pearl Rivers" (Mrs. Eliza Poitevent Nicholson), 124. 

Pensacola, mention of, 8; 15; 83. 

People of New Orleans, 128-129. 

People 's Avenue, mention of, 4. 

Perdido River, mention of, 25. 

Perique Tobacco, 82. 

Perrier, Governor, 11; 12; 45; 49; 108. 

Persians, mention of, 59. 

Peters Avenue, mention of, 104; 106; Samuel, 119. 

Philadelphia, mention of, 18; 30; 66; 72; 81; 123; Exposition, 
mention of, 62. 

Philippine Islands, mention of, 74. 

Physical Training, Department of, 113 

Picayune, mention of, 124; 126. 

Pickwick Club, mention of, 130. 

Pilsbury, Edward, 40. 

Pitt, AVm., mention of, 13. 

Pittsburg, mention of, 25; 64; 69. 

Place d'Armes, mention of, 10; 12; 16: 20; 22; 23; 29; 145- 
146; 149; 150. 



XX. 



INDEX — Continued. 



Plantation System, 91. 

Plaquemines Parish, mention of, 92; 95. 

Pleasant Street, mention of, 63. 

Poetry, English, 124; French, 123. 

Police, Board of Commissioners of, 1-tl; City Guardians, 
1800, 21; Commissioners of, 40; 41. 

Political Divisions of New Orleans, 137. 

Poll Tax, 140; X.-XI. 

Pollock, Oliver, 15. 

Pontalba Buildings, mention of, 16; 146; 147. 
■ Pontchartrain, Count of, mention of, 8; Lake, mention of, 
1; 2; 3; 8; 17; 42; 45; 46; 47; 49; 63; 146; Trade on 
Lake, 70. 

Population, mention of, 12; 15; 18; 30; 33; 39; 41; Com- 
position of, 128. 

Port, Chalmette, mention of, 67; Definition of, 64; Improve- 
ment, 71; Limon, 72; Sabine, 85. 

Ports, 72; Trans- Atlantic, 72. 

Porto Rico, mention of, 72. 

Postage, 59-60. 

Postal Savings Department, mention of, 60; System, 59-60; 
Telegraph, 61. 

Post Office Building, 5; 42; 59; 60. 

Potomac River, mention of, 145. 

"Poucha Houmma," 122; Chief, 122. 

Powers of Commission Council, 137. 

Powers, Thomas, mention of, 18. 

Poydras, Julien, 101; 104; 105; 122; Market, 32; Orphan 
Asylum, 33; 70; 104; Street, mention of, 24. 

Pratz, La Page du, mention of, 99. 

Pre-eminence of Germans in City Planning, 143-144. 

Premium Bonds, 40. 

Prepiaratory Schools, 118. 

Presbyterian Church, 105; Hospifal, 58. 

President pro tempore of the Senate, III. 

Princeton, 115. 

Pritchard, R. 0., 33. 

Private Schools and Colleges, 117-118 

Professions — Trades, 97; 102 

Progresso, mention of, 72. 

Protection Levee, 4; 46. 

Proteus, Mystic Krewe of, 130. 

Prytania Street, mention of, 63. 

Public Affairs, Commissioner of, 138; Department of, 138. 

Publications of Commission Council, 137. 

Public Belt Railroad, 41; 43; 56; 68-69; 90; 138. 

Public Buildings, Commissioner of, 41 ; 42. 

Public Education, State Board of, 111; 125; IX. 

Public Finances, Commissioner of, Department of, 138. 

Public Pleasure Grounds, 148-151. 

Public Property, Commissioner of. Department of, 138. 

Public Safety, Commissioner of. Department of, 55; 138. 

Public School, Alliance, 125; System, 110-114. 

Public Utilities, Commissioner of, Department of, 138. 

Public Works, Commissioner of, 40; 41. 

Pumping Stations, 46; 47; 67. 

Purchase of Louisiana, 22-23. 

Quadroon, mention of, 20. 

Quarantine, 52; 43. 

Quebec, mention of, 7; 8; 13; 143. 

Railroads, 1815-1860, 32; Communication, 71-72. 

Rampart Street, North, mention of, 8; 12; 17; 18; 63; 103; 

145; South, 129. 
Recall, 141. 

Reconstruction Acts, 38; 110; 111. 
Recorders' Courts, 141. 
Red River, mention of, 7; 8; 87. 
Referendum, 141. 
Refrigerators, 96. 



Registration, 140 

' ' Reign of Terror, ' ' 133 

Reis, Philip, 61. 

Bellgieuses, 38. 

Rejiresentative of Louisiana, Qualifications of, II.; Residence, 

Gain and Loss of, XI. 
Respect for Authority, 154-155. 
Rex, 130. 
Rice, 70; 81-82. 
Richardson, Dr. T. G., 100; Mrs. Ida, 116; Memorial Medical 

School, 116; Architect, 120. 
Rigolets, mention of, 1; 2. 
Rio de Janeiro, mention of, 74. 
Rio Grande, mention of, 70. 
Riplej^, Mrs. Eliza, 35. 
Riverport, 64. 
River Traffic, 70. 
Robertson Street, mention of, 116 
Robin, Traveller, mention of, 20, 21. 
Rocky Mountains, mention of, 8; 69; States, 143. 
Rodriguez's Canal, 27. 
Rogers, Wm. O., 111. 

Roman Code, 15; People, 59; 129; Civil Law, 97. 
Rome, 83; 129; 143. 
Ronald, Francis, mention of, 60 
Roosevelt, Nicholas I., mention of, 25. 

Rosalie, Fort, 12. . - 

Roselius, Christian, 98. 
Rosewood, 89. 

Ross, Colonel, mention of, 26. 
Rotterdam, mention of, 72, 
Royal, Bank of France, 101; Street, 21; 40; 129; Branch 

Library, 120. 
Rue de la Levee, mention of, 18; 20. 
Rugby Academy, 118. 
Riussel actor, 38. 
Russia, 129; People of, 129. 

Sabine River, mention of, 71; 93, 

Sacred Heart, Ladies of, 117-118; Church, 118. 

Salcedo, Governor, mention of, 22; 23. 

Salt, 85. 

San Domingo mention of, 8; 13; 24; 31; 79; 104; 109; 125; 

Refugees, 17; 18; 19; 20; actors, 21. 
Sanitation, History of, 49; Improvements, 53. 
San Francisco, mention of, 52; 57; 116; 148. 
Santa Maura, mention of, 125. 
Santos, mention of, 74. 
Sauvage, Bayou, mention of, 2. 
Sauve 's Plantation, mention of, 3. 
"Scalawags," 39. 
School Gardening, 92. 

Scotland, mention of, 72; People of, 129. 
Scotti Father, mention of, 51. 
Sea Level, 1. 
Seal of State, HL 
Seaport, 64 
Secession, 38 

Second Coalition, War of, 22. 
Second District, 42. 
Second Municipality, 31; 119. 
Secretary of State, 123; I.; IIL 
Seismic Observatory, 117. 
Self-Control, Virtue of, 154, 
Semiramis, Queen, 143. 

Semraes, Admiral Raphael, mention of, 98; Thomas J,, 98. 
Senate, Louisiana, I.; II. 
Senatorial Districts, II. 
Senator, Louisiana, Qualifications of, II. 
September 14, 1874, 39. 



INDEX— Continued. 



XXI. 



Seventh Street Protestant Orphans' Home, 105. 

Seven Years' War (See Fourth French and Indian War). 

Sewerage, 43; 45-48; 53; and Water Board, 47. 

Shakespeare, Joseph A., mention of, 40. 

Sheriffs, V.-VI. 

Shipping, 64. 

Shoes, Manufacture of, 89. 

Sicily, mention of, 84; Island, 12. 

Sioux City, mention of, 72. 

Sisters of Charity, 103; 105. 

Sisters of Protestant Episcopal Church, 106. 

Slaves, African, 9; 11; 12; 15; Indian and Negro, 20; 102; 

Trade Forbidden, 24. 
Slavery, 31; 33. 
Smallpox, 49; 52. 
Soil, 2. 

Soldiers' Home, 106. 

Some Causes of German Success in City Planning, 144. 
Sophie B. Wright Girls' High School, 112. 
Sophie Neweomb College, 116. 
Soto, Hernando de, 7. 
Souder, Emily B. (ship), 50. 
Soule, Colonel, College, 118 
South American Countries, 1; Trade with, 41; 74; Cable, 61; 

mention of, 73; 88; 128. 
South Carolina, 38. 

Southern Paeiflc Railroad, 71; Ships, 72; 82. 
Southern Railway Company, mention of, 67. 
Southern States or South, mention of, 72; 102; 103; 110; 

123; 125; People of, 129. 
South Pass, 40; 65. 
Squares and Playgrounds, 150. 
Spain, mention of, 11; 13; 14; 15; 18; 22; 23; 24; 72; 73; 

97; 101; 103; 104; 108; 109; 128; People of 129. 
Spanish Succession, War of, 9; Governor's Home, 18; 19 

Architecture, 19; People in New Orleans, 1800, 19; Sol 

diers, 20; Infanta, 22; King, 23; Flag, 23 (Frontispiece) 

Land Grants, 24; Physicians, 99; 100; Language, 109 

Domination, 14; 21; 123; 126; 128; Cities, 146; Fort, 36 

70; 135; Schools, 108-109. 
Spanish-American War, 50. 
St. Anna's Asylum, 106. 
St. Ann Street, mention of, 21. 
St. Anthony's Square, mention of, 21. 
St. Bernard Parish, mention of, 1; 88; 91; 92; 95. 
St. Charles Avenue, mention of, 105; 106; 116; 117; 118; 

119; 130; 147; 150; Fort, mention of, 17; Hotel, 33; 34; 

36; 38; Street, mention of, 40; 147; 150; Theatre, 33; 38. 
St. Clair River, mention of, 7. 
St. Elizabeth's House of Industry, 105. 
St. Ferdinand, Fort, mention of, 17. 
St. Ildefonso, Treaty of, 14. 

St. James, Hotel, 32; Parish, mention of, 82; 125. 
St. John, Bayou, mention of, 2; 4; 10; 17; 36; 37; 45; 70 

106; 149. 
St. Joseph, Fort mention of, 17 
St. Landry Parish, mention of, 76; 78, 
St. Lawrence River, mention of, 71; 13. 
St. Louis, Bourse, 34; City, mention of, 61; 71; 91; 128; 

Fort, 7; Hotel, 33; 36; 147; Street, mention of, 12; 16. 
St. Martin Parish, mention of, 126. 
St. Mary's Market, mention of, 32; Parish, mention of, 79; 

Orphan Asylum, 105. 
St. Patrick's Church, mention of, 33; Hall, mention of, 38; 40. 
St. Peter Street, mention of, 21; 103. 
St. Philip, Fort, 26; 28. 
St. Roch's 133. 

St. Tammany Parish, mention of, 1. 
St. Vincent's Asylum, 105. 



State Boards, IX.-X.; Public Education, IV.; Agriculture and 
Immigration, IX.; Charities and Corrections, X.; Liquida- 
tion of State Debt, X.; Commissioners of Port of New 
Orleans, X.; Conservation Commission, X. 

State House, mention of, 33; 119. 

State Journal, mention of, II. 

State Library, 119. 

State Normal, X. 

State of Louisiana, 3; See Louisiana. 

State Superintendent of Education, 110. 

Steamboats, 1815-1860, 37. 

Stone, Hospital, 33; Dr. Warren, 58; 100. 

Straight, Seymore, University, 118. 

Strawberry Industry, 92. 

Street Railways, 63. 

Streets, in 1800, 20; Lighting, 40; 153; Paving, 147-148; 
Cleaning, 153-154. 

Stuart, Mrs. Ruth McEnery, 126. 

Suffrage, X.-XI. 

Sugar, Introduced, 11; Granulation, 17; 18; Trade, 70; 73; 
Change, 80; Cultivation and Manufacture, 79-80; Ex- 
periment Station, 80. 

Sulphur, 84-85. 

Superintendent of Education, New Orleans, 111. 

Superior Council, 14; 15. 

Supreme Court, 25; 97; 99; II.; Jurisdiction, Members, Dis- 
tricts, Sessions, TV. 

Switzerland, mention of, 73; People of, 129. 

Tampa, mention of, 61; Bay, 7. 

Tampieo, City, mention of, 72; River, 7. 

Tangipahoa Parish, mention of, 92. 

Tax, Kate of, 141. 

Taxation, 140-141; State Board of Appraisers, VIII. -IX. 

Taxile, Dr., mention of, 100. 

Tehoupitoulas Street, mention of, 2; 104; 151. 

Technology, College of, 116. 

''Te Deum, " mention of, 8; 44, 

Telegraph, 60-61. 

Telephone, 40; 61; 62. 

Temperature, 5. 

Tennessee, River, 25; State, 73; 76; 96. 

Tensas Parish, mention of, 76. 

Terminal Stations, 67. 

' ' Terre Commune, ' ' mention of, 23 ; 128. 

Testut, Dr. Charles, 123. 

Texas, mention of, 7; 8; 32; 61; 72; 88; 124; Crop, 76; 
Railroad Commission, 76; 87; Texas and Pacific Rail- 
road, 67; 71. 

Thackeray, William Makepeace, mention of, 36 

Thanksgiving Offering, 132-133. 

"The Oaks," 21. 

Thevis, Father, 133. 

Thirteen Colonies, mention of, 15. 

Third District, mention of, 133. 

Thomas Hall, mention of, 117. 

"Tignons," 20. 

Tilton Memorial Library, 116. 

Timbalier Oyster Field, 95. 

Times-Democrat, mention of, 125. 

Tobacco Trade, 34; 73; 82; 88. 

Tomy Lafon Orphan Boys' Asylum, 106. 

' ' Tonnage, ' ' 64. 

Tonti, Chevalier de, mention of, 49. 

Topography, 1. 

Toulon, mention of, 100. 

Toulouse Street, mention of, 12; 18; 103; 131. 

Tour, Le Blond de la, 10; 145; 149. 

Touro, Judah, 58; Infirmary, .58; Society, 58; Touro-Shake- 
speare Almshouse, 106. 



XXII. 



INDEX— Continued. 



Town as a Unite oi Governiiieiit, The; Muuifipal Corpora- 
tions; Officials, VIII. 

Tuwnsend, Mrs. Mar}^ Ashley, 124. 

Trade, 64-75; Laws, 15; of Valley, 69-70; of Lake, 70; For- 
eign, 72-74. 

Trades — Professions, 97-102. 

Tranehepain, Mother, mention of, 107; 108. 

Traus-0,ceanie Steamship Lines^ 72. 

Treason, VI. 

Treasurer, 40; 41; State, IIL; IX. 

Treasury, Department of United States, mention of, 52. 

Trieste, mention of, 72. 

Trinidad, mention of, 152. 

Truelc Farming, 91-92. 

Tulane, Paul, 114-115; Avenue, mention of, 103; 129; Univer- 
sity, 114-116; mention of, 100; 104; 119; 124; 148. 

Turks, mention of, 129. 

Tuscany, mention of, 22. 

Twelfth Night Revelers, 132. 

Typhoid Fever, 50. 

Typhus, 52. 

Ulloa, Don Antonio, mention of, 14; 15; 108. 

Union of Municipalities, 39. 

Union Normal School, mention ofj 118. 

United Fruit Company, mention of, 61; 72. 

United States, mention of, 4; 5; 16; 18; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 
25; 42; 50-51; 70; 73; 76; 90; 128; 130; Bank, 31; 98; 
Mint, 32; 33; Census, 40; Public Health Service, 51-52; 
57; 96; 104; Post Office, 59; Control of Trade, 64; 65; 
Immigration Station, 66; Customs Service, 74-75; De- 
partment of Agriculture, 78. 

University of Louisiana, 114-116; mention of, 124; 125; X. 

University of Virginia, mention ofj 125. 

Unzaga, Governor, mention of, 109. 

Ursulines, 11; 12; 13; 16; 103; 107; 109; 117; 131; 145; 146; 
Street, mention of, 12. 

Vaca, Cabeza de, 7. 

Vacancies in Commission Council, 137. 

Vaccination 49. 

Valley Trade, Loss of, 31. 

Varieties Theatre, 130. 

A'^audreuil, Marquis de, 12; 45. 

Venezuela, mention of, 152. 

Vera Cruz, mention of, 72; 108. 

Verandah Hotel, 33. 

Vermilion Eiver, mention of, 71. 

Victor, General, mention of, 22. 

Vieux Carre, 19; 24; 30; 31; 35; 110; 131; 146; 147; 148. 

Villeneufve, Le Blanc de, 122. 

Villere, 15; General Jacques, 27; 30; 53; Street, mention 

of, 116. 
Virginia, State of, mention of, 24. 
Vital Statistics, Department of, State, 54; City, 56. 



A'olksfest, 133-134. 
Volta, inventor, mention of, 60. 
Voting, 140; Disbarment from, XI. 
A^olunteers of America, mention of, 57. 

Walker, Judge Alexander, 125; Norman, 125. 

War of 1812, 25-30. 

Warren Easton Boys' High School, 112. 

Washington, George, mention of, 13; 145; City, 5; 52; 59; 145; 

Patent Office, 62; And Lee College, mention of, 98; 

Avenue, mention of, 131; Market, mention of, 32; 

Square, mention of, 150; And New Orleans Telegraph 

Company, 61. 
Water Supply, in 1800, 20; System, 43; Works, 48; 53. 
Waterways, 69-71. 
Weather Bureau, New Orleans Station, 5; Distribution of 

Forecasts, Value of Forecasts, Changes of Temperature, 

Warnings, 6; 82. 
Webster, Daniel, mention of, 98. 
Weeks' Island, mention of, 85; 86. 
Weight and Measure Laws, 54. 
Well-governed Home, 135. 
' ' West, The, ' ' mention of, 18. 
West End, mention of, 36; 70; 146. 
' ' Westerners, ' ' mention of, 18. 
Western Multiple Switchboard, 62. 
Western Packing house, 96. 
Western Union, 61. 

West Indian, 6; Immigration, 24; Port, 49; 61. 
West Indies, mention of, 15; 25; 49; 87; 128. 
Westwego, mention of, 67. 
Wharton, E. C, mention of, 124 
Wharves, 40; 64; 66-67. 
Wheatstone, Sir Charles, mention of, 60. 
White, Dr. C. B., mention of, 53; Dr. Joseph H., mention 

of, 51. 
White Apple Village, 12. 
White League, 39. 
Whitney-Central Bank Building, mention of, 42; 101; Morgan, 

mention of, 149. 
Wilde, Richard Henry, 124. 

Wilkinson, General James, mention of, 18; 23; 24; 25. 
Winn Parish, mention of, 84 
Wireless Telegraphy, 61. 

Wisconsin River, mention of, 7; State, mention of, 73. 
Wortley, Lady, mention of, 36. 
Wrought-iron, 146-147. 

"XarifEa" (Mrs. Mary Ashley Townsend), 124. 

' ' Yankee Doodle, ' ' mention of, 26. 

Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad, mention of, 71. 

Yellow Fever, 49; 50; 51; 52; 70. 

Yellow Pine, mention of, 73; 152. 



